Ueacbers'  Series 

EDITED  BY  WILLIAM  C.   BAGLEY 


THE  PROJECT  METHOD 
OF  TEACHING 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO   •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA  •    SAN   FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON    •    BOMBAY   •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  LTD. 

TORONTO 


flDofcern  Ueacbers'  Series 


THE  PROJECT  METHOD 
OF  TEACHING 


BY 
JOHN   ALFORD    STEVENSON,   PH.D. 

PROFESSOR    OF    EDUCATION,    CARNEGIE    INSTITUTE 
OK    TECHNOLOGY,    PITTSBURGH,    PA. 


35575 


THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1922 

All  right*  re»erv«d 


COPTBIOHT,   1921, 

BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  March,  1921. 


Nortoooto 

3.  8.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


Education 
Library 

L6 


THIS  BOOK  18   DEDICATED 
TO   MY  WIFE 

JOSEPHINE   REESE   STEVENSON 


PREFACE 

THIS  book  is  devoted  mainly  to  a  critical  discussion 
of  the  project  method  of  teaching.  The  term  "project" 
has  only  recently  made  its  appearance  in  educational 
terminology,  but  the  idea  back  of  the  project  is  not  new. 
It  is  quite  probable  that  skillful  teachers  have  always 
used  the  essential  features  of  the  project  method. 

A  survey  of  modern  teaching  methods  in  engineering, 
law,  medicine,  agriculture,  as  well  as  in  the  prescribed 
subjects  of  the  school  curriculum,  shows  that  much 
effort  is  being  expended  to  bridge  the  chasm  between 
school  tasks  and  activities  outside  the  school.  In  other 
words,  the  project  idea,  as  defined  by  the  author,  is 
attempted  to  some  extent  in  all  these  fields. 

The  project  idea  aims  to  present  problems  in  situa- 
;  tions  not  essentially  different  from  those  of  life  and  to 
(  develop  the  technique  of  carrying  the  solution  of  these 
\problems  to  completion. 

While  the  primary  purpose  of  this  study  is  to  define 
the  project  and  to  discuss  the  project  method  from  a 
critical  point  of  view,  it  has  seemed  advisable,  since 
method  is  so  closely  tied  up  with  curriculum  organiza- 
tion, to  discuss  the  reorganization  of  the  curriculum 
on  the  project  basis.  Also,  the  history  of  the  project 

has  been  considered  in  some  detail,  since  a  knowledge 

vii 


VU1  t  PREFACE 

of  the  historical  background  is  essential  to  a  proper 
understanding  of  the  term. 

The  first  seven  chapters  deal  with  the  theory  of  the 
project  method.  In  chapter  eight,  projects  which 
have  been  successfully  worked  out  in  elementary  and 
high  schools  are  outlined  in  order  to  show  the  applica- 
tion of  this  method  of  teaching.  No  attempt  has  been 
made,  however,  to  organize  any  one  subject  completely 
on  the  project  basis. 

The  author  realizes  the  difficulty  of  organizing  a 
course  completely  on  the  project  basis.  But,  wherever 
it  is  possible  to  substitute  units  of  work  on  the  project 
basis  for  work  on  a  subject  basis,  results  will  show  the 
effectiveness  of  the  project  method. 

The  author  recognizes  his  very  great  indebtedness 
to  his  former  teacher  and  colleague,  Professor  W.  W. 
Charters,  who  was  responsible  for  his  interest  in  this 
subject.  The  idea  of  the  "project,"  as  defined  in  this 
study,  was  proposed  by  Professor  Charters,  and  his 
suggestions  have  served  as  a  guide  in  the  working  out 
of  the  "project  method." 

J.  A.  S. 

PITTSBURGH,  PENNSYLVANIA, 
August,  1920 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I.    GENERAL  STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEM 
AND  METHOD  OF  INVESTIGATION 

PAGE 

I.  INTRODUCTION 1 

II.  THE  ELEMENTS  IN  THE  PROBLEM 2 

III.  STANDARDS  OF  JUDGMENT 3 

(a)  Memory  of  Information  vs.  Reasoning         ...  4 

(6)  Conduct  vs.  Information  for  Its  Own  Sake          .        .  9 

(c)  Natural  Setting  vs.  Artificial  Setting            ...  14 

(d)  The  Priority  of  the  Problem  vs.  the  Priority  of  Principles  17 

IV.  THE  PROBLEM  RESTATED 19 

CHAPTER  II.    AN  EXAMINATION  OF  TYPES  OF 
TEACHING  NOW  IN  COMMON  USE 

I.  THE  TYPES  AND  THE  METHOD  OF  SELECTION    ...      22 

(a)  Questions 23 

(1)  Detailed  and 


(2)  Memory  Questions    SmaU  Problems 

(3)  Topical  Questions 25 

(4)  Thought  Questions 27 

(6)  The  Topic 28 

(c)  The  Problem,  Example,  Originals,  and  Exercises         .  29 

(d)  Drills,  Tests,  and  Reviews 32 

(e)  Applications,     Illustrations,     Demonstrations,     and 

Practicums 33 

SUMMARY 37 

ix 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  III.    DEFINITION  OF  THE  PROJECT 

PAOE 

I.  THE  NEED  FOR  THE  TERM  "  PROJECT  "  .        .        .40 

II.  AN  HISTORICAL  STATEMENT  OF  THE  PROJECT     .        .        .41 

III.  THE    JUSTIFICATION    AND    DEFINITION    OF    THE    TERM 

"PROJECT" 43 

IV.  CRITICISM  OF  CURRENT  DEFINITIONS 54 

(a)  Definitions  Proposed  by  Teachers  Interested  in 

General  Educational  Theory  ....  55 

(6)  Definitions  Proposed  by  Men  Interested  in  Agricul- 
tural Education 69 

(c)  Definitions  Proposed  by  Teachers  of  Science       .         .  76 

(d)  The  Use  of  the  Project  in  Industrial  Education  .         .  81 

(e)  Use  of  the  Project  in  the  Field  of  English  Instruction  84 
(/)  Use  of  the  Project  in  Elementary  School  Instruction  86 

V.  SUMMARY      ...              88 

CHAPTER  IV.    PROBLEMS  AND  PROJECTS 

I.  THE  NEED  FOR  MAKING  A  DISTINCTION  BETWEEN  PROJECT 

AND  PROBLEM 91 

II.  DEFINITIONS  OF  PROBLEM  AND  PROJECT     ....  94 

III.  TYPES  OF  PROBLEMS  AND  PROJECTS 97 

(a)  The  Manual  Problem  and  the  Manual  Project    .        .  97 

(6)  The  Intellectual  Problem  and  the  Intellectual  Project  98 

(c)  Illustrations 99 

IV.  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PROBLEMS  AND  PROJECTS  BASED  UPON 

DEGREE  OF  COMPLEXITY 102 

(a)  Simple  and  Multi-problems 102 

(1)  Simple  Problems  and  Illustrations     .        .        .  102 

(2)  Multi-problems  and  Illustrations       .        .        .  103 
(6)  Simple  and  Complex  Projects 107 

(1)  Simple  Projects  and  Illustrations       .        .        .  108 

(2)  Complex  Projects  and  Illustrations   .         .        .109 
V.  SUMMARY                             114 


CONTENTS  xi 

CHAPTER  V.    IMPLICATIONS  OF  THE  PROJECT 
METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

PAOX 

I.  THE  PROJECT  AND  MOTIVATION 116 

II.  THE  PROJECT  AND  THINKING      .       .       .-  .       .120 

HI.  THE  PROJECT  AND  HABIT-FORMATION          .        .        .        .128 

IV.  THE  PROJECT  AND  ACTION 131 

V.  SUMMARY      .        .        . 135 

CHAPTER  VI.  THE  PROJECT  AND  THE 
CURRICULUM 

I.  THE   NEED    FOR   SCIENTIFIC   METHODS   IN   CURRICULUM 

ORGANIZATION 137 

II.  PRINCIPLES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  CURRICULUM  MAKING  138 

(a)  A  Curriculum  in  Woodworking  Based  on  Projects  139 

(6)  Illustrations  of  Curricula  Based  on  Projects        .        .  142 
(c)  Two  Plans  for  the  Organization  of  Subject  Matter  in 

the  Curriculum 147 

IH.  PROJECTS  NEED  NOT  Cur  ACROSS  SUBJECTS  OF  THE  CURRIC- 
ULUM            152 

IV.  OBSOLETE  MATERIAL  IN  SCHOOL  CURRICULA      .        .        .  152 

V.  THE  PROJECT  AS  THE  BASIS  FOR  CURRICULUM  ORGANIZATION  153 

VI.  SUMMARY 156 

CHAPTER    VH.    APPLICATION    OF   THE    PROJECT 
IDEA 

I.  ENGINEERING 158 

II.  THE  LEGAL  AND  MEDICAL  CLINICS 168 

III.  JOURNALISM 181 

IV.  MODERN  LANGUAGE 183 

V.  INSURANCE  SALESMANSHIP 186 

VI.  SUMMARY  191 


xil  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  VIII.  APPLICATION  OF  THE  PROJECT 
METHOD  TO  SUBJECTS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY 
AND  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

'  PAGE 

PROJECTS  IN  ENGLISH 197 

PROJECTS  IN  Civics 205 

PROJECTS  IN  HYGIENE 215 

PROJECTS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 227 

PROJECTS  IN  HISTORY 239 

PROJECTS  IN  MANUAL  TRAINING 243 

PROJECTS  IN  MATHEMATICS 252 

A  PROJECT  IN  BIOLOGY 258 

PROJECTS  m  HOME  ECONOMICS 261 

PROJECTS  m  PHYSICS 263 

PROJECTS  IN  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES 267 

PROJECTS  CUTTING  ACROSS  SEVERAL  FIELDS  OF  SUBJECT  MATTER  268 

SUMMARY 277 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  .                279 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

TEACHERS  of  educational  theory  are  frequently 
asked  whether  the  "project  method"  is  something  new 
or  whether  it  is  merely  a  new  name  for  a  type  of  teach- 
ing that  has  long  been  known  and  practiced. 

It  may  seem  paradoxical  to  say  that  both  these 
apparent  alternatives  are  true.  There  is,  I  am  confi- 
dent, something  essentially  new  in  the  project  method 
as  it  has  been  formulated  by  such  men  as  Charters, 
Stevenson,  Snedden,  and  Kilpatrick.  This  new  some- 
thing, however,  is  itself  a  product  of  an  evolution,  and 
it  should  go  without  saying  that  the  method  was 
practiced  and  even  described  long  before  it  was  chris- 
tened. To  go  no  farther  back  than  the  second  quarter 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  one  may  find  in  Thoreau's 
Walden  a  criticism  of  traditional  educational  practices 
which  expresses  very  clearly  some  of  the  ideals  that  the 
project  method  strives  to  realize : 

'  .  .  .  '  But/  says  one,  '  you  do  not  mean  that  the 
students  should  go  to  work  with  their  hands  instead 
of  their  heads  ? '  I  do  not  mean  that  exactly.  ...  I 
mean  that  they  should  not  play  life,  or  study  it  merely, 
.  .  .  but  earnestly  live  it.  ...  How  could  youths 
better  learn  to  live  than  by  at  once  trying  the  experi- 
ment of  living?  Methinks  this  would  exercise  their 

xiii 


xiv  EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

minds  as  much  as  mathematics.  If  I  wished  a  boy 
to  know  something  about  the  arts  and  sciences,  for 
instance,  I  would  not  pursue  the  common  course, 
which  is  merely  to  send  him  into  the  neighborhood 
of  some  professor,  where  everything  is  professed  and 
practiced  but  the  art  of  life ;  —  to  survey  the  world 
through  a  telescope  or  a  microscope,  and  never  with 
his  natural  eye;  to  study  chemistry,  and  not  learn 
how  his  bread  is  made,  or  mechanics,  and  not  learn 
how  it  is  earned ;  to  discover  new  satellites  in  Neptune, 
and  not  detect  the  motes  in  his  eyes,  or  to  what 
vagabond  he  is  a  satellite ;  or  to  be  devoured  by  the 
monsters  all  around  him,  while  contemplating  the 
monsters  in  a  drop  of  vinegar.  Which  would  have 
advanced  the  most  at  the  end  of  the  month,  —  the 
boy  who  had  made  his  own  jackknife  from  the  ore 
which  he  had  dug  and  smelted,  reading  as  much  as 
would  be  necessary  for  this,  —  or  the  boy  who  had 
attended  the  lectures  on  metallurgy  at  the  Institute 
in  the  meanwhile,  and  had  received  a  Rogers  penknife 
from  his  father  ?  .  .  .  To  my  astonishment  I  was  in- 
formed on  leaving  college  that  I  had  studied  naviga- 
tion !  —  why,  if  I  had  taken  one  turn  down  the  harbor 
I  should  have  known  more  about  it.  .  .  ." 

Certainly  there  is  no  problem  more  fundamental  or 
more  perplexing  than  that  which  is  involved  in  the 
effort  to  link  what  we  call  knowledge  with  the  larger 

1  This  interesting  commentary  on  teaching  will  be  found  in  "Econ- 
omy," the  first  essay  in  W olden. 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION  XV 

complex  that  we  call  life.  To  bring  knowledge  to  the 
learner  in  the  " natural  setting"  of  a  problem  that  the 
knowledge  will  help  to  solve  ought  to  effect  this  end  if 
any  educational  procedure  can  effect  it.  That  the 
project  method  as  thus  conceived  has  its  limitations 
is  obvious  enough.  Even  Thoreau  might  have  found 
himself  hard  put  to  it  to  provide  all  the  "natural 
settings"  needed  to  impel  the  boy  to  make  his  own  jack- 
knife  "from  the  ore  which  he  had  dug  and  smelted, 
reading  as  much  as  would  be  necessary  for  this"; 
and  it  is  tolerably  clear,  too,  that  Thoreau  hi  his  student 
days  could  have  taken  more  than  "one  turn  down  the 
harbor"  without  learning  even  the  little  about  naviga- 
tion that  his  college  course  in  that  subject  taught  him. 
The  layman's  easy  solutions  for  educational  problems 
frequently  involve  a  quite  innocent  disregard  of  practi- 
cal obstacles.  If  some  of  our  educational  problems 
were  so  easy  to  dispose  of  as  they  may  seem  to  be  on 
the  surface,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  they  would  not 
have  remained  so  long  unsolved. 

Dr.  Stevenson's  treatment  of  the  project  method 
recognizes  the  difficulties  which  an  effort  to  reorganize 
educational  practice  on  the  basis  of  "real  problems" 
must  meet  and  overcome.  If  it  is  true  that  the  author 
has  an  abundant  faith  in  the  method,  it  is  also  true 
that  he  recognizes  its  limitations  and  its  possible  dan- 
gers. His  attitude  is  that  of  the  student  who  accepts 
a  theory  as  inherently  valid  and  then  asks  how  the 
theory  may  be  so  applied  that  its  virtues  will  be  re- 


xvi  EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

fleeted  in  the  practice.  It  avails  us  little  to  say  of  a 
proposal,  "It  is  all  right  in  theory,  but  it  won't 
work."  If  a  proposal  is  theoretically  right  it  will 
11  work,"  else  the  validity  of  the  theory  is  question- 
able. The  project  method  as  defined  by  Dr.  Steven- 
son represents  a  clear-cut  theory  of  teaching.  It 
merits  careful  study  and  a  thoroughgoing  test.  Even 
if  it  does  not  prove  to  be  a  universal  solvent  for  the 
great  problem  of  bringing  knowledge  close  to  life,  it 
is  altogether  probable  that  its  formulation  is  a  step 
forward  —  perhaps  a  longer  and  a  more  important 
step  than  has  heretofore  been  taken  in  the  development 
of  educational  method. 

WILLIAM  C.  BAGLEY. 


THE  PROJECT  METHOD 
OF  TEACHING 


THE  PROJECT  METHOD 
OF  TEACHING 

CHAPTER  I 

GENERAL  STATEMENT  OF   PROBLEM  AND  METHOD 
OF  INVESTIGATION 

I.   INTRODUCTION 

A  SURVEY  of  the  literature  dealing  particularly  with 
agricultural  education,  the  teaching  of  home  economics 
and  of  the  trades  and  industries,  and,  more  recently, 
with  the  administration  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act,  is 
sufficient  to  show  that  the  term  "  project  "  has  a  wide 
use.  Nor  has  the  term  been  confined  to  the  subjects 
cited,  although  it  appears  more  frequently  there  than 
elsewhere. 

Coincident  with  its  use  in  these  fields  has  appeared  a 
considerable  and  somewhat  critical  discussion  of  its 
meaning  and  implications,  a  discussion  which  has 
revealed  a  disconcerting  variety  of  opinion.  There 
are  in  existence  approximately  twenty  definitions  or 
descriptions  of  the  project,  discussed  by  fifteen  writers. 
The  results  have  indicated  widespread  interest,  but 
have  not  suggested  any  striking  agreement  or  uniform- 
ity of  view. 

1 


2  THE  PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

This  lack  of  uniformity,  typical  of  project  literature, 
has  been  commented  upon  by  writers  on  the  project 
method.  Four  years  ago,  H.  P.  Barrows,  among 
others,  pointed  out  the  fact  that  "in  many  sections 
where  teachers  talk  of  projects  there  seems  to  be  a  lack 
of  understanding  of  the  plan  and  a  lack  of  unity  in  the 
definition  of  the  term.  According  to  some  teachers 
any  effort  toward  giving  their  work  a  practical  turn  is 
termed  a  project.  Others  have  used  the  word  in  lieu 
of  'practicum, '  so  that  simple  laboratory  exercises 
are  spoken  of  as  projects."  * 

This  vague  use  of  the  term,  together  with  the  diverse 
attempts  to  define  or  enumerate  its  essential  char- 
acteristics, and  the  well-known  tendency  of  educational 
writers  to  invent  unnecessary  terms,  may  properly 
give  rise  to  the  question  as  to  whether  the  project 
really  implies  the  introduction  of  a  new  concept.  A 
critic  objecting  to  the  introduction  of  new  terms  might 
very  pertinently  ask  whether  the  different  meanings 
attached  to  the  word  might  not  be  forms  of  other  con- 
cepts now  in  use  which  would  serve  just  as  well  as  a 
new  coinage. 

II.  THE  ELEMENTS  IN  THE  PROBLEM 

A  solution  of  the  problem  just  stated  will  be 
attempted  in  this  book.  There  are  many  incidental 
inquiries  which  will  demand  solution,  but  the  present 

1  Barrows,  H.  P.,  "Home  Projects  in  Secondary  Courses  in  Agricul- 
ture," U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  States  Relations  Service  Bulle- 
tin No.  346,  p.  4,  Feb.  21,  1916. 


GENERAL  STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEM  3 

study  will  be  devoted  mainly  to  the  investigation  and 
solution  of  the  following  general  divisions  of  the 
problem : 

A.  The  determination  of  certain  elements  that  make 
a  certain  teaching  situation  a  project.  These  will  be 
treated  as  four  pairs  of  contrasted  aims  in  learning. 

J3.  An  examination  of  concepts  now  in  use  and  more 
or  less  closely  related  to  the  project  for  the  purpose  of 
estimating  their  availability  for  describing  the  teaching 
situation  indicated  in  the  first  investigation. 

C.  A  statement  and  explanation  of  the  term  "  proj- 
ect." 

D.  A  critical  examination  of  all  extant  definitions 
of  the  term. 

E.  A  consideration  of  the  significance  of  the  project 
in  relation  to  problem,  motive,  reasoning,  drill,  and  the 
curriculum. 

F.  An  examination  of  the  ideas  contained  in  the 
term,  but  under  different  names,  in  the  teaching  of 
law,  medicine,  engineering,  journalism,  and  the  foreign 
languages. 

III.  STANDARDS  OF  JUDGMENT 

The  most  lucid  method  of  showing  what  is  essential 
to  the  project  as  a  method  of  teaching  is  found  in  an 
analysis  of  four  characteristics  that  seem  to  be  involved 
in  the  idea.  As  a  device  to  aid  in  the  analysis  it  has 
been  found  convenient  to  set  forth  four  pairs  of  aims 
in  teaching  and  to  demonstrate,  on  the  one  hand,  that 


4  THE  PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

the  project  includes  one  item  from  each  of  these  pairs, 
and  on  the  other,  that  no  other  concept  in  common 
use,  such  as  problem,  exercise,  practicum,  precisely 
covers  this  situation.  These  four  pairs  of  aims  are : 

(a)  Reasoning  vs.  memory  of  information. 
(6)  Conduct  vs.  information  for  its  own  sake. 

(c)  Natural  setting  for  learning  vs.  artificial  setting 
for  learning. 

(d)  The  priority  of  the  problem  vs.  the  priority  of 
principles. 

It  will  be  shown  that  the  project,  as  herein  denned, 
involves  one  item  from  each  of  these  pairs,  viz. :  reason- 
ing, conduct,  natural  setting,  and  priority  of  the  prob- 
lem. It  will  be  further  shown  that  all  other  terms 
in  common  use  include  less  or  more  than  these  four 
items. 

(a)  Memory  of  Information  vs.  Reasoning 

Two  widely  different  methods  of  learning  have  been 
and  are  still  used  in  educational  practice. 

The  first  measures  its  worth  by  the  learner's  success 
in  absorbing  the  material  in  the  textbook  so  as  to  make 
a  letter-perfect  recitation  when  called  upon  by  the 
teacher.  This  method  may  be  termed  the  acquisition 
of  information  by  memory.  The  material  in  the  lessons 
consists  in  a  great  measure  of  dogmatic  statements,  and 
the  mental  activity  demanded  of  the  pupil  is  reduced 
largely  to  reproductive  memory.  The  mental  act 


GENERAL  STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEM  5 

demanded  of  pupils  in  such  exercises  does  not  constitute 
reasoning,  but  is  little  more  than  the  assimilation  of 
statements  outlined  and  organized  by  the  author.  This 
fact  is  clearly  shown  by  the  survey  of  textbooks  used 
by  children  in  the  grades  and  in  the  high  school,  from 
one  of  which  the  following  illustration  is  taken  : 

"Surface  and  Industry.  Paraguay  is  a  rich  but  un- 
developed country  largely  occupied  by  Indian  negro 
races.  The  surface  is  made  up  of  plains  and  low  moun- 
tains covered  by  forests.  The  plains  are  chiefly  devoted 
to  grazing  and  the  production  of  Paraguay  tea,  or 
mate. 

"  Trade.  Paraguay  tea  is  cheaper  than  Asiatic  tea 
and  its  use  in  South  America  is  constantly  increasing. 
Lumber  is  the  principal  forest  product,  and  is  sent  to 
the  Argentine  Republic  and  Uruguay,  both  of  which 
lack  timber.  These  products,  together  with  hides  and 
tobacco,  are  the  chief  exports.  The  leading  imports 
are  textiles,  provisions,  hardware,  and  drugs. 

"  Asuncion,  the  capital,  from  its  position  on  the 
Paraguay  River,  is  the  most  flourishing  town  and 
commercial  port. 

Questions  and  Exercises 

"  (l)  What  is  the  chief  article  of  trade  between 
Paraguay  and  the  neighboring  countries? 

"  (2)  What  does  Paraguay  import  from  the  Argentine 
Republic  ? 

"  (3)  Give  the  chief  advantages  of  the  location  of 
Asuncion."  l 

1  Dodge,  R.  E.,  "Advanced  Geography,"  pp.  210-211.  Rand,  McNally 
and  Company,  Chicago,  1914. 


6  THE   PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

The  activity  which  the  learner  uses  in  answering 
these  questions  is  largely  confined  to  memory.  The 
answers  to  questions  (l)  and  (3)  are  found  in  the 
descriptive  paragraph ;  the  answer  to  question  (2)  is 
found  in  the  preceding  paragraph  describing  the  Argen- 
tine Republic  and  not  quoted  here. 

The  recognition  of  the  inadequacy  of  memorizing 
information  is  not  recent.  Seventy  years  ago,  Horace 
Mann,  in  his  annual  report  for  1845,  pointed  out  what 
earlier  writers  had  sensed,  that  verbal  memory  received 
too  much  attention :  "  The  teacher  may  appear  to  do 
a  vast  deal  more  by  stimulating  the  verbal  memory  of 
the  child,  and  by  giving  him  the  show  instead  of  the 
substance  of  knowledge,  than  if  he  could  strive  to 
reanimate  the  apparently  dead  powers  of  acquisition 
and  of  thought.  Yet  the  latter  should  be  done,  at 
whatever  seeming  delay ;  and  the  faithful  teacher  will 
do  it  irrespective  of  the  consequences  of  it  to  his  own 
reputation."  1  And  again  he  asserts  that  "  a  habit, 
too,  is  ...  formed  of  reciting,  without  thinking.  At 
length  the  most  glib  recitation  becomes  the  best ;  and 
the  less  the  scholars  are  delayed  by  thought,  the  faster 
they  can  prate,  as  a  mill  clacks  quicker  when  there  is 
no  grist  in  the  hopper."  2 

Another  statement  from  Mann,  quoted  because  of 


1  "Life  and  Works  of  Horace  Mann,"  Vol.  4,  p.  81,  Reports  and 
Addresses.  Lee  and  Shepard,  Publishers. 

1  Ibid.,  Vol.  2,  p.  69,  Lectures  and  Reports.  Lee  and  Shepard, 
Publishers. 


GENERAL  STATEMENT   OF  PROBLEM  7 

its  humor,  illustrates  an  extreme  case  of  memoriter 
teaching : 

"  It  recently  happened,  in  a  school  within  my  own 
knowledge,  that  a  class  of  small  scholars  in  geography, 
on  being  examined  respecting  the  natural  divisions  of 
the  earth,  its  continents,  oceans,  islands,  gulfs,  etc., 
answered  all  the  questions  with  admirable  precision 
and  promptness.  They  were  then  asked,  by  a  visitor, 
some  general  questions  respecting  their  lesson,  amongst 
others,  whether  they  had  ever  seen  the  earth  about 
which  they  had  been  reading ;  and  they  unanimously 
declared  in  good  faith  that  they  never  had."  l 

As  the  quotations  indicate,  the  defect  of  the  memory 
exercises  in  developing  reasoning  was  noted  early,  and 
out  of  the  correctives,  suggested  by  Mann  and  others, 
for  developing  the  reasoning,  have  grown  the  concepts 
of  the  rational  method,  thought  questions,  and  later 
the  more  elaborate  form  now  known  as  the  problem 
method. 

The  problem  method,  as  described  by  John  Dewey 
and  others,  has  found  its  psychological  justification  in 
the  functional  character  of  thinking.  The  origin  of 
thinking,  in  Dewey 's  judgment,  lies  in  a  problem  to 
be  solved : 

''  To  say  that  thinking  occurs  with  reference  to 
situations  which  are  still  going  on,  and  incomplete,  is 
to  say  that  thinking  occurs  when  things  are  uncertain 

1<(Life  and  Works  of  Horace  Mann,"  Vol.  2,  p.  68,  Lectures  and 
Reports. 


8  THE  PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

or  doubtful  or  problematic.  Only  what  is  finished, 
completed,  is  wholly  assured.  Where  there  is  reflection 
there  is  suspense.  The  object  of  thinking  is  to  help 
reach  a  conclusion,  to  project  a  possible  termination 
on  the  basis  of  what  is  already  given.  Certain  other 
facts  about  thinking  accompany  this  feature.  Since 
the  situation  in  which  thinking  occurs  is  a  doubtful 
one,  thinking  is  a  process  of  inquiry,  of  looking  into 
things,  of  investigating."  1 

In  other  words,  "It  is  the  problematic  situation  in 
which  thinking  or  reasoning  has  its  rise." 

The  importance  of  the  problem  in  developing  reason 
is  also  indicated  by  E.  N.  Henderson  : 

"  The  use  of  the  problem  as  the  form  of  educating 
the  reason  has  been  especially  characteristic  of  educa- 
tion in  modern  time.  It  may  be  said  to  be  the  largest 
outcome  of  educational  reform  in  the  direction  of 
method,  and  its  advent  means  the  conscious  endeavor 
to  give  the  child  not  merely  the  fixed  adjustments  of 
recapitulatory  education,  but  also  the  capacity  to 
readjust  that  springs  from  reason  and  its  culture.  In 
general,  the  educational  principle  that  has  been  put 
forward  as  representing  the  issue  is  that  learning  should 
stir  up  the  self-activity  of  the  child,  that  the  child 
should  learn  from  his  own  experience  and  efforts,  not 
from  those  of  the  teacher ;  in  other  words,  that  the 
most  effective  teaching  is  self -teaching."  2 

1  Dewey,  John,  "  Democracy  and  Education,"  p.  173.  The  Mac- 
millan  Company,  1916. 

*  Henderson,  E.  N.,  "The  Principles  of  Education,"  p.  273.  The 
Macmillan  Company,  1910. 


GENERAL  STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEM  9 

The  most  important  advantages  claimed  for  the 
problem  method  are  that  it  gives  a  better  hold  on 
subject  matter  and  develops  a  technique  of  reasoning. 

For  our  purposes,  an  analysis  of  concepts  now  in 
use  which  may  be  more  or  less  related  to  the  project, 
must  be  made  in  order  to  distinguish  between  these 
two  educational  tendencies,  viz. :  the  mastery  of 
information  through  mere  memory  and  its  acquisition 
through  reasoning.  The  kind  of  teaching  that  in- 
cludes provisions  and  opportunities  for  reasoning,  that 
makes  use  of  the  problem  and  lays  particular  emphasis 
on  it,  as  against  the  kind  of  teaching  that  emphasizes 
merely  memorized  information,  is  worthy  of  considera- 
tion as  a  standard  by  which  to  evaluate  commonly 
used  concepts  more  or  less  related  to  the  project. 

(b)  Conduct  vs.  Information  for  Its  Own  Sake 

It  is  also  necessary  to  distinguish  between  the  com- 
pletion of  an  act  (conduct)  as  contrasted  with  reading 
about  and  learning  the  plan  of  an  act  (information). 

Conduct  as  characterized  by  John  Dewey  is  "a 
general  term  for  the  spirit  and  tenor  of  all  the  overt 
acts  that  constitute  the  behavior  of  an  agent.  As 
contrasted  with  the  term  '  behavior,'  the  word  '  con- 
duct '  is  usually  limited  to  acts  that  have  an  end 
consciously  in  view  and  that  are  preceded  by  more  or 
less  deliberation  —  in  short,  to  such  acts  as  have  moral 
quality,  actual  or  potential."  l 

1  Dewey,  John,  "  Conduct."     Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Education. 


10  THE  PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

The  implied  question  which  it  is  necessary  to  consider 
in  the  discussion  of  these  two  contrasted  aims  of  learning 
is  the  character  of  the  end  of  education.  Is  it  the  accu- 
mulation of  information  or  the  modification  of  conduct  ? 

Educational  writers  agree  that  information  for  its 
own  sake  is  not  a  satisfactory  end  of  education.  For 
example,  F.  M.  McMurry  says  : 

"  Much  has  been  said  in  times  past  about  art  for 
art's  sake,  science  for  the  sake  of  science,  and  knowledge 
for  the  sake  of  knowledge  ;  but  these  are  vague  expres- 
sions that  will  excite  little  interest  so  long  as  the  worth 
of  a  man  is  determined  by  what  comes  out  of  him,  by 
the  service  he  renders,  rather  than  by  what  enters  in. 
Other  branches  of  knowledge  used  for  educative  pur- 
poses, therefore,  resemble  the  useful  arts  in  the  recogni- 
tion of  their  bearings  on  man,  their  actual  use  as  the 
goal  in  their  study."  1 

Other  educational  writers  agree  that  conduct  is  a 
worthy  or  satisfactory  end  of  education.  For  instance, 
Dewey  says :  "  It  [education]  is  that  reconstruction 
or  reorganization  of  experience  which  adds  to  the 
meaning  of  experience,  and  which  increases  ability  to 
direct  the  course  of  subsequent  experience."  And 
Bagley  adds :  "  Education  may  be  tentatively  defined, 
then,  as  the  process  by  means  of  which  the  individual 
acquires  experiences  that  will  function  in  rendering 
more  efficient  his  future  action."  2 

1  McMurry,  F.  M.,  "How  to  Study,"  p.  198.     Houghton  Mifflin 
Company,  1909. 

2  Bagley,  W.  C.,  "The  Educative  Process,  p.  22.    The  Macmillan 
Company,  1905. 


GENERAL  STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEM  11 

The  following  quotation  from  E.  C.  Moore  is  also 
significant : 

"  Learning  to  use  one's  own  mind,  however,  in  such 
ways  that  he  will  go  on  using  it  to  advantage  as  long 
as  he  lives  is  the  one,  great,  supreme  object  of  educa- 
tion. Now  that  psychology  has  defined  itself  as  the 
study  of  behavior,  education  must  follow  suit  by  con- 
ceiving its  mission  as  that  of  training  the  student  to 
profitable  behavior,  that  is,  to  do  the  things  that  the 
situations  which  he  will  meet  in  life  call  for.  Our 
contention  is  that  these  social  doings  are  definite  re- 
sponses to  concrete  situations,  and  that  the  learning 
which  will  fit  us  to  make  them  must  be  the  learning  of 
definite  doings,  not  that  vague  thing  which  is  called 
general  training."  1 

Classroom  teachers  and  textbook  writers,  when  faced 
by  the  direct  question  as  to  the  end  of  education,  agree 
so  unanimously  with  the  statement  that  the  end  of 
education  should  be  the  modification  of  conduct,  that 
no  notice  would  need  to  be  taken  of  any  divergent 
view,  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  actual  classroom  pro- 
cedure through  questions,  recitations,  reviews,  and 
examinations  is  frequently  dominated  by  the  other 
ideal,  that  the  mastery  of  information,  and  not  its 
applications  to  problems  of  conduct,  is  the  important 
end  of  education.  In  fact,  this  conflict  is  so  real  that 
many  of  the  commonly  used  concepts  enumerated 
below  2  have  been  invented  for  the  specific  purpose 

1  Moore,  E.  C.,  "What  is  Education?"  pp.  235-236.  Ginn  and 
Company,  1915.  *  See  p.  22. 


12  THE   PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

of  insuring  mastery  of  information  rather  than  improve- 
ment of  conduct. 

It  must  be  recognized,  of  course,  that  information 
does  tend  to  modify  conduct.  This  modification, 
however,  is  not  automatic ;  it  is  to  a  very  considerable 
degree  both  voluntary  and  conscious.  It  requires 
thought  to  apply  information  to  conduct,  and  this 
application  has  so  subtle  a  technique  that  instruction 
in  the  applications  of  information  is  necessary,  as  is 
very  clearly  brought  out  by  E.  C.  Moore  in  the  follow- 
ing serio-comic  paragraph : 

"  Should  verbal  study  be  allowed  to  take  the  place 
of  doing?  Suppose  the  master  workman  in  the  shop, 
which  is  the  world,  should  say  to  his  apprentices : 
'  It  is  true  that  you  have  come  here  to  learn  how  to 
use  the  best  of  these  tools  in  the  working  of  iron,  but 
that  is  a  tedious  and  illiberal  process.  It  will  be  more 
profitable  to  you  if  I  should  tell  you  some  of  the  more 
important  facts  about  them,  and  then  we  will  spend 
the  remainder  of  the  time  that  you  are  to  be  here  in 
analyzing  the  language  which  I  shall  have  been  com- 
pelled to  employ  in  describing  them  to  you.  After 
all,  language  is  the  most  important  of  human  concerns. 
Some  say  it  is  a  tool  just  like  all  these  others  here,  but 
I  think  it  is  so  much  more  than  that  that  I  am  convinced 
that  if  you  will  only  take  the  trouble,  not  indeed  to 
learn  to  use  it  —  for  that  is  the  least  important  thing 
about  it  —  but  to  learn  all  the  curious  facts  and  distinc- 
tions that  subtle  minds  have  found  out  about  it,  and  to 
recognize  them  when  you  meet  instances  of  them,  you 
will  be  better  prepared  to  use  both  it  and  all  these 


GENERAL  STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEM  13 

other  tools  than  any  amount  of  working  with  them 
under  my  direction  could  make  you.'  "  l 

From  the  foregoing  quotations  it  seems  evident  that 
the  modification  of  conduct  is  a  worthy  end  of  educa- 
tion, at  least,  a  more  worthy  end  than  that  of  informa- 
tion for  its  own  sake.  How,  then,  may  provision  be 
made  for  this  essential  element,  the  modification  of 
conduct  ? 

An  act  carried  to  completion  guarantees  that  the 
solutions  will  be  understood  and  will  become  the 
property  of  the  individual  who  carries  them  out.  In- 
formation will  then  be  measured  by  the  extent  to  which 
it  can  be  made  over  into  the  experience  of  the  individual 
using  it  to  solve  his  problem.  If  the  act  is  carried  to 
completion  a  maximum  modification  of  conduct  will 
result.  To  the  extent  that  the  act  remains  incomplete, 
to  that  extent  the  individual  has  failed  to  exhaust  the 
range  of  possible  solutions  and  to  remake  more  ex- 
perience ;  and,  by  the  same  token,  the  less  will  conduct 
be  affected.  Conduct  is  modified  by  memoriter  in- 
formation but  within  very  narrow  limits,  for  the  range 
of  possible  applications  is  reduced.  Conduct  is  modi- 
fied in  proportion  as  the  act  is  carried  to  completion. 

A  concept  which  includes  provisions  and  opportuni- 
ties for  conduct,  that  is,  for  the  carrying  of  acts  to 
completion,  and  which  lays  particular  emphasis  on 
this  feature,  is  worth  consideration  as  a  standard  by 

1  Moore,  E.  C.,  "What  is  Education?"  pp.  181-182. 


14  THE  PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

which  to  evaluate  commonly  used  concepts  related  to 
the  project. 

(c)   Natural  Setting  vs.  Artificial  Setting 

An  attempt  to  answer  the  question,  Is  the  problem 
in  its  natural  or  artificial  setting?  constitutes  the  basis 
for  the  discussion  of  the  third  pair  of  contrasted  aims 
of  teaching.  Is  the  problem  presented  for  solution  by 
schoolroom  practice  essentially  different  from  that 
found  in  life  outside  the  school?  If  the  solution  is 
carried  on  in  essentially  the  same  way  in  school  as 
outside  of  school  then  the  problem  has  a  "  natural 
setting." 

The  boy  in  an  agricultural  school  who  determines  to 
test  his  father's  seed  corn  as  a  part  of  the  assignment 
of  the  school  work  is  carrying  on  the  problem  in  a 
natural  setting.  The  problems  in  mathematics  that 
are  solved  in  school  with  the  same  incentive  and  purpose 
that  prompts  their  solution  outside  of  school,  are  solved 
injtheir  natural  setting.  The  study  of  the  gasoline 
engine  in  the  physics  class  would  be  considered  as  a 
problem  in  its  natural  setting  provided  that  the  motives 
prompting  the  learning  of  the  parts  and  the  way  to  run 
the  engine  were  not  different  from  those  that  would 
dominate  the  same  learning  situation  outside  of  the 
school.  The  reading  of  "  Ivanhoe  "  in  school  would 
likewise  be  done  in  its  natural  setting  if  the  motives 
prompting  the  reading  were  similar  to  those  which 
would  cause  people  outside  the  school  to  read  the  book. 


GENERAL  STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEM  15 

In  pursuing  his  work,  the  farmer  makes  plans  to-day, 
purchases  his  seed  and  at  the  same  time  possibly  gives 
attention  to  the  buying  of  stock.  Plans  are  made  for 
sowing,  harvesting,  testing  of  the  seed  and  the  herd. 
Each  day  presents  new  problems  which  demand  solu- 
tion. They  arise  because  there  is  a  need  present.  The 
carrying  on  of  his  activities  brings  him  face  to  face  with 
difficulties,  with  situations  which  demand  solution. 
These  problems  which  he  faces  from  day  to  day  repre- 
sent an  ideal  natural  setting  for  the  solution  of 
difficulties. 

When,  however,  the  subject  matter  for  the  school 
course  in  agriculture  is  arranged,  it  is  frequently  found 
almost  impossible  to  teach  the  whole  range  of  activi- 
ties that  the  farmer  normally  practices.  Hence  certain 
abstractions  are  made.  Training  may  include  courses 
in  soil  analysis,  animal  husbandry,  and  farm  mechanics. 
Certain  problems  may  be  planned  and  carried  out  in 
each  one  of  these  subjects,  but  since  some  of  the 
problems  will  not,  or  possibly  may  not,  parallel  any 
problem  in  practical  life,  it  may  be  said  that  the  setting 
of  these  problems  is  artificial. 

The  artificiality  of  the  setting  of  many  school  prob- 
lems is  clearly  characterized  by  John  Dewey  in  the 
following  statement : 

'  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  peculiar  artificiality 
attaches  to  much  of  what  is  learned  in  schools.  It  can 
hardly  be  said  that  many  students  consciously  think 
of  the  subject  matter  as  unreal ;  but  it  assuredly  does 


16  THE  PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

not  possess  for  them  the  kind  of  reality  which  the  sub- 
ject matter  of  their  vital  experiences  possesses.  They 
learn  not  to  expect  that  sort  of  reality  of  it ;  they  be- 
come habituated  to  treating  it  as  having  reality  for 
the  purposes  of  recitations,  lessons,  and  examinations. 
That  it  should  remain  inert  for  the  experiences  of  daily 
life  is  more  or  less  a  matter  of  course.  The  bad  effects 
are  twofold.  Ordinary  experience  does  not  receive  the 
enrichment  which  it  should ;  it  is  not  fertilized  by 
school  learning.  And  the  attitudes  which  spring  from 
getting  used  to  and  accepting  half-understood  and 
ill-digested  material  weaken  vigor  and  efficiency  of 
thought.  .  .  .  Where  schools  are  equipped  with 
laboratories,  shops,  and  gardens,  where  dramatiza- 
tions, plays,  and  games  are  freely  used,  opportunities 
exist  for  reproducing  situations  of  life,  and  for  acquiring 
and  applying  information  and  ideas  in  the  carrying 
forward  of  progressive  experiences."  l 

Criticism  that  the  subject  matter  of  the  school  is 
still  largely  isolated  from  the  experiences  outside  of 
the  school  is  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  few  provisions 
are  made  for  carrying  forward  problems  in  the  school 
in  their  natural  setting. 

The  idea  must  be  borne  in  mind  as  the  discussion  of 
natural  and  artificial  setting  proceeds  that  the  elemen- 
tary and  high  schools  are  not  training  scientists,  writers 
of  fiction,  or  philosophers,  but  people  who  constitute 
average  folk.  But  if  the  pupils  decide  to  become  highly 
specialized  experts,  it  may  be  that  the  problems  which 
they  then  face  will  assume  what  in  this  discussion  would 
1  Dewey,  John,  "  Democracy  and  Education,"  p.  190. 


GENERAL  STATEMENT   OF  PROBLEM  17 

seem  to  be  an  abstract  and  artificial  setting.  This 
seemingly  abstract  and  artificial  setting  may  be  the 
natural  setting  for  such  problems. 

Methods  of  teaching  which  lay  stress,  on  the  one 
hand,  upon  abstracted  subject  matter,  and,  on  the 
other,  upon  the  provision  for,  and  the  acceptance  of, 
the  natural  setting  of  problems  in  the  school,  may 
rightfully  be  taken  into  consideration  in  the  evalua- 
tion of  commonly  used  concepts  related  to  the  project. 

(d)   The  Priority  of  the  Problem  vs.  the  Priority 
of  Principles 

This  statement  indicates  the  differences  in  the  order 
in  which  principles  and  problems  are  presented.  In 
the  first  instance,  the  study  of  principles  precedes 
their  application  to  a  problem ;  in  the  second  case,  the 
problem  is  staged  for  the  learner  and  the  principles 
are  introduced  as  needed  in  the  solution  of  the  problem. 

The  differences  between  these  two  types  of  learning 
are  commented  upon  by  G.  R.  Twiss  : 

"  As  finding  the  place  of  a  new  fact  or  phenomenon 
in  the  general  system  is  always  the  final  step  for  the 
scientist  in  the  treatment  of  a  problem,  so  it  should  be 
for  the  student  in  the  science  class.  Accordingly  the 
logical  position  of  a  new  fact  should  not  be  given  by 
the  teacher  at  the  start,  as  so  often  it  is,  but  should 
be  found  by  the  class  after  they  have  studied  it."  1 

1  Twiss,  G.  R.,  "Science  Teaching,"  pp.  77-78.  The  Macmillan 
Company,  1917. 


18  THE  PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

And  again : 

"  This  fundamental  principle  of  science  teaching, 
which  withholds  theories  until  they  are  needed  to 
explain  the  facts,  and  allows  them  to  be  used  only  as 
working  hypotheses  until  the  accumulated  evidence 
forces  conviction,  is  flagrantly  violated  in  some  of  the 
most  widely  used  texts  in  both  physics  and  chemistry. 
In  one  physics  text  the  wave  theory  of  light  comes 
almost  at  the  beginning  of  the  subject,  and  the  molecu- 
lar theory  is  introduced  before  the  phenomena  of  heat 
are  taken  up.  In  several  of  the  chemistries  the  authors 
take  the  shortest  possible  cut  to  the  atomic  theory. 
The  result  is  muddy  and  vague  talk  by  the  pupils 
about  what  molecules  and  ether  do,  when  plain  state- 
ments of  fact  are  required.  It  leads  them  inevitably 
toward  a  dogmatic,  deductive  attitude ;  and  it  fails  to 
train  them  in  distinguishing  between  fact  and  infer- 
ence —  an  ability  that  is  absolutely  essential  to  any 
clear  and  scientific  thinking."  l 

The  principles  that  are  developed  by  the  learner  in 
situations  in  which  he  has  had  need  for  them  will 
function  in  the  real  situations  outside  the  classroom. 
If  the  definitions  are  given  first  and  then  illustrated 
there  is  still  left  a  doubt  in  the  pupil's  mind  as  to 
whether  or  not  the  principles  can  be  used  by  him  in  the 
solution  of  his  problem.  As  Twiss  says,  "  Real  knowl- 
edge of  a  law  or  principle  —  that  is,  facility  or  skill  in 
using  it  —  can  be  gained  only  by  practice  in  dealing 
with  problematic  situations  in  which  it  is  involved." 

1  Twiss,  G.  R.,  "Science  Teaching,"  p.  309.  2  Ibid.,  p.  291. 


GENERAL  STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEM  19 

The  advantages  claimed  for  the  priority  of  the  prob- 
lem as  against  the  priority  of  principles  may  be 
summarized  as  follows : 

(1)  The  principles  will  be  better  understood  when 
they  are  developed  as  the  learner  has  need  for  them. 

(2)  The  principles  learned  in  this  way  are  acquired 
by  the  individual  in  the  order  in  which  they  were 
acquired  by  the  race.     The  formulation  of  the  principles 
is  the  final  process  following  observation  and  applica- 
tion.    It  does  not  come  first. 

(3)  More  interest   attaches  to  the   formulation  of 
the  principles  when  the  use  of  the  principle  is  known 
and  appreciated. 

The  disadvantages  of  the  procedure  are  that  fewer 
principles  may  be  given  and  that  a  systematic  outlook 
may  be  more  difficult  to  obtain.  These  objections 
will  be  considered  later  when  the  implications  of  the 
project  method  are  under  discussion. 

A  method  of  teaching  which  makes  adequate  pro- 
vision for  raising,  first  of  all,  problems  in  the  mind  of 
the  learner,  developing  principles  as  needed  in  the 
solution  of  the  problems,  should  be  given  considera- 
tion as  a  standard  by  which  to  evaluate  concepts 
related  to  the  project. 

IV.  THE  PROBLEM  RESTATED 

Four  pairs  of  standards  have  been  mentioned :  in- 
formation acquired  by  reasoning  vs.  information  ac- 
quired by  memory,  information  for  its  use  in  modifying 


20  THE  PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

conduct  vs.  information  for  its  own  sake,  learning  in  a 
natural  setting  vs.  learning  in  an  artificial  setting,  and 
the  setting  of  problems  with  the  introduction  of  prin- 
ciples as  needed  in  their  solution  vs.  the  study  of 
principles  before  acquaintance  with  the  problems  in 
which  they  are  useful. 

It  is  evident  that  there  may  be  an  important  type  of 
teaching  situation  which  would  involve  one  of  each  of 
the  four  pairs.  For  instance,  the  student  might  have 
/a  situation  in  which  he  would  attack  a  problem  in  its 
natural  setting,  obtain  information  by  reasoning  out 
I  his  solution,  use  this  information  in  actually  modifying 
\  his  conduct,  and  learn  his  facts  and  principles  as  the 
solution  of  his  problem  demanded.  If  so,  there  is  a 
(  demand  for  a  name  for  such  a  teaching  situation,  pro- 
vided that  no  term  now  in  use  denotes  these  elements 
and  provided  that  the  situation  is  of  sufficient  educa- 
tional importance  to  warrant  the  invention  of  a  new 
term. 

That  such  teaching  situations  are  numerous  is 
clearly  shown  by  their  constant  recurrence  in  several 
fields  of  instruction. 

Two  situations  will  be  mentioned  here  from  different 
fields  and  other  examples  will  be  multiplied  throughout 
the  later  discussions.  The  situation  in  agriculture  is 
stated  by  R.  W.  Stimson. 

"  In  the  ordinary  routine  of  the  farm  it  may  be  that 
the  boy  is  required  to  tend  the  poultry.  During  at 
least  one  year  he  should  be  given  control  of  at  least 


GENERAL  STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEM  21 

one  pen  of  poultry,  and  facilities  for  feeding  a  balanced 
ration  and  trap  nesting  individual  birds  for  comparison 
of  the  productivity  in  laying."  l 

Another  example  is  cited  from  household  science.  A 
student  is  required  to  assume  responsibility  for  the 
purchase  and  preparation  of  the  meals  at  home  for  a 
longer  or  shorter  period  with  the  understanding  that 
they  be  well  balanced. 

f  The  foregoing  problems  are  types  of  situations  not 
at  all  uncommon  in  many  subjects,  including  the 
agricultural  and  household  science  courses,  which 
involve  (1)  the  standards  of  reasoning,  (2)  informa- 
tion acquired,  as  it  is  needed,  for  use  in  (3)  carrying  on 
a  practical  line  of  action  in  (4)  its  natural  setting. 

The  next  chapter  will  consider  the  recognized  types 
of  teaching  to  see  if  any,  without  modification,  can 
take  care  of  teaching  situations  that  are  similar  to 
those  just  cited  from  the  fields  of  agriculture  and 
household  science. 

1  Stimson,  R.  W.,  "The  Massachusetts  Home-Project  Plan  of  Vo- 
cational Agricultural  Education."  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Whole 
No.  579,  p.  15,  1914. 


CHAPTER  II 

AN  EXAMINATION  OF  TYPES  OF  TEACHING  NOW 
IN  COMMON  USE 

I.   THE  TYPES  AND  THE  METHOD  OF  SELECTION 

CAN  the  school  activities  included  within  the  term 
"project "  be  taken  care  of  by  other  concepts  now  in  use? 
To  answer  this  question  it  is  necessary  that  the  types 
of  teaching  which  collectively  include  some  of  the  most 
important  phases  of  the  project,  be  analyzed  into  their 
elements  and  their  functions  determined  so  as  to  com- 
pare them  with  the  elements  and  functions  for  which 
the  word  "project"  may  be  made  to  stand. 

The  most  reliable  source  in  which  to  find  the  concepts 
in  common  and  accepted  use  is  in  contemporary  ele- 
mentary and  high  school  textbooks.  A  careful  exami- 
nation of  forty-two  books,  including  texts  in  geography, 
language,  science,  reading,  algebra,  geometry,  and 
Latin,  disclosed  fourteen  methods  of  teaching  found 
with  sufficient  frequency  to  warrant  the  statement 
that  they  comprise  those  now  in  most  common  use. 
The  methods  noted  are :  questions,  topics,  problems, 
examples,  originals,  exercises,  drills,  tests,  reviews, 
applications,  illustrations,  demonstrations,  experiments, 
and  practicums. 

22 


AN  EXAMINATION  OF  TYPES  OF  TEACHING     23 

These  methods  should  be  examined  critically  to  see 
if  any  one  is  sufficiently  inclusive  and  exclusive  in  its 
scope  to  provide  for  the  situations  cited  above  and 
illustrated  by  household  science  and  agriculture.  If 
all  of  the  four  desirable  standards  are  not  included  or 
if  other  than  the  four  standards  are  included,  it  will 
then  be  desirable  to  propose  a  new  concept. 

(a)  Questions 

Since  the  topical  method  of  organization  centers 
largely  in  questions,  an  illustration  of  the  topic  and  the 
uses  made  of  the  four  types  of  questions,  the  detailed, 
topical,  memory,  and  thought  questions,  will  be  dis- 
cussed. The  topical  treatment  is  taken  from  Redway 
and  Hinman's  Natural  School  Geography. 

11  The  Northeastern  Section 

"  The  six  states  in  the  extreme  northeastern  part 
of  our  country  are  often  called  New  England.  The 
surface  in  general  is  hilly,  while  the  northwestern  part 
of  the  section  is  traversed  by  the  northern  ranges  of 
the  Appalachians.  Of  these  the  Green  Mountains  are 
the  most  continuous,  and  the  White  Mountains,  east 
of  Connecticut  River,  are  the  highest. 

1  The  section  is  less  suited  to  agriculture  than  any 
other  part  of  the  eastern  lowlands.  The  valleys  of 
the  larger  rivers  are  fertile,  but  over  much  of  the 
uplands  the  soil  is  thin,  unproductive,  and  covered 
with  glacial  bowlders.  In  the  northern  part  are  exten- 
sive forests.  Such  crops  as  hay,  apples,  potatoes,  and 
tobacco  are  raised  in  the  valleys.  Market  gardening 


24  THE   PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

and  dairying  are  carried  on.  The  greater  part  of  the 
food  used  by  the  people,  however,  comes  from  the  west. 

"  The  numerous  waterfalls  of  this  section  afford 
excellent  water  power,  and  manufacturing  has  become 
the  chief  occupation.  Steam  power  is  now  largely 
used,  however,  coal  for  fuel  being  brought  chiefly  by 
sea  from  the  ports  of  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  bays. 

"  The  section  produces  practically  no  coal  or  raw 
materials  other  than  stone  and  wood  ;  hence  the  articles 
manufactured  are  those  which  have  a  high  value  in 
comparison  with  that  of  the  fuel  and  material  used. 

"  The  chief  manufactures  are  cotton  and  woolen 
cloth  and  boots  and  shoes,  of  which  this  section  pro- 
duces more  than  all  the  rest  of  the  country.  Other 
characteristic  manufactures  are  brass  goods,  paper, 
wood  pulp,  light  hardware,  fine  machinery,  firearms, 
clothing,  silk,  jewelry,  and  rubber  goods. 

"  Southern  New  England  is  the  most  densely  peopled 
part  of  the  United  States.  More  than  half  the  people 
there  live  in  cities. 

"  To  supply  the  needs  of  the  dense  manufacturing 
population,  the  southern  half  of  the  section  is  covered 
with  a  network  of  railways,  which  connects  it  with  the 
south  and  west,  and  also  with  the  railway  systems  of 
Canada.  The  glacier-carved  fiords  and  bays  of  the 
New  England  coast  contain  many  fine  harbors,  from 
which  vessels  carry  on  an  active  coasting  or  fishing 
trade  ;  and  Boston  maintains  a  large  foreign  com- 


merce." 


To  illustrate  the  detailed  memory  and  topical  ques- 
tions, and  to  show  how  closely  they  follow  the  text 

1  Redway  and  Hinman,  "Natural  School  Geography,"  pp.  56,  57. 
American  Book  Company,  New  York 


AN  EXAMINATION  OF  TYPES  OF  TEACHING     25 

materials,  a  list  is  presented.  These  questions  are 
typical  of  the  questions  which  accompany  the  topical 
organization  of  the  subject  matter. 

(1)  Detailed  and  }  ~      ..  ~    , . 

;  '  ,,  ~       ..        }  Small  Problems 

(2)  Memory  Questions  J 

(1)  How  many  states  are  included  in  the  North- 
eastern section  ? 

(2)  What  is  the  character  of  the  surface  ?     Why  ? 

(3)  What    mountain   ranges    traverse    the    North- 
western part  of  the  section  ? 

(4)  What  section  is  suited  to  agriculture?     Why? 
What  section  is  not  ?     Why  ? 

(5)  What  are  the  chief  agricultural  products  ? 

(6)  What  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the  people  of  this 
section?     Why? 

(7)  Why  are  the  manufactured  articles  those  which 
have  a  high  value  in  comparison  with  the  fuel  and 
material  used  ? 

(8)  Name  the  chief  manufactured  products. 

(9)  Why  does  this  section  have  such  a  network  of 
railroads  ? 

(3)  Topical  Questions 

(1)  What    are    the    surface    characteristics    of   the 
Northeastern  group  of  states?     Why? 

(2)  What  are  the  chief  occupations  of  this  section? 
Why? 

In  the  topic  taken  from  the  geography  there  are 


26  THE  PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

gathered  certain  facts  which  are  presumably  worth 
learning  and  which  are  presented  in  logical  order. 
These  facts  are  taught  one  by  one  and  not  in  response 
to  the  needs  of  the  learner. 

The  mental  effort  of  the  learner  will  probably  be 
greater  if  the  topical  questions  are  used  instead  of  the 
detailed  questions.  In  either  case  the  questions  may  be 
answered  if  the  material  in  the  paragraph  is  remembered. 

As  previously  stated,  the  memory  question  is  closely 
connected  with  the  topical  arrangement,  which  ac- 
counts for  the  topical  arrangement  just  quoted  and 
discussed  later  in  the  treatment  of  the  topical  method, 
and  was  brought  into  use  first  to  insure  the  mastery  of 
the  subject  matter  as  presented.  This  mastery  de- 
pends upon  the  ability  of  the  pupils  to  memorize  and 
to  give  back  the  facts. 

The  question  is  one  of  the  oldest  devices  used  to 
develop  some  degree  of  reasoning  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils.  The  lessons  are  assigned  and  the  question  is 
used  not  only  to  determine  what  the  pupil  knows  and 
how  much  of  previous  lessons  he  has  understood,  but 
also  to  give  the  teacher  a  cue  as  to  the  next  step  in  the 
lesson  to  be  undertaken.  They  may  stimulate  the 
pupils  to  face  new  issues  and  to  solve  problems,  or 
they  may  degenerate  into  a  very  formal  exercise  in 
which  the  teacher  asks  questions  that  can  be  answered 
by  memorizing  the  ready-made  solution  of  the  text. 
At  least  the  teacher  when  directing  a  series  of  ques- 
tions dominates  the  recitation,  with  the  constant  dan- 


AN  EXAMINATION  OF  TYPES  OF  TEACHING     27 

ger  that  the  outline  of  the  unit  of  subject  matter  is 
not  being  followed  by  the  pupils.  This  means  that  the 
pupils  are  content  to  answer  questions  occasionally 
and  at  the  end  of  the  hour  find  that  they  have  given 
many  ready-made  solutions,  possibly  not  thoroughly 
understood  and  probably  with  little  appreciation  of 
the  coherence  or  the  main  objectives  of  the  lesson. 
The  question  may  be  a  valuable  device  to  stimulate 
reasoning,  but  unless  used  by  very  skillful  teachers,  it 
is  likely  to  cause  the  recitation  to  degenerate  into  a 
memoriter  exercise. 

The  questions  enumerated  on  page  25  illustrate  the 
memory  questions.  The  facts  which  are  necessary  to 
answer  the  questions  are  given  in  the  descriptive  para- 
graph. The  activity  which  is  demanded  is  memory 
of  facts. 

(4)  Thought  Questions 

Suppose  this  question  were  proposed  as  a  substitute 
for  all  the  questions  given :  "  To  what  extent  can  the 
industries,  occupations,  and  locations  of  cities  in  New 
England  be  accounted  for  by  its  surface  conditions?  " 
This  could  be  classed  as  a  thought  question  and  the 
answer  to  this  question  would  demand  a  reconstruction 
of  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  the  surface  conditions  in 
New  England.  The  memory  of  facts  would  not  be 
sufficient  to  answer  it. 

The  use  of  memory  questions,  detailed  questions,  or 
topical  questions  would  not  be  sufficient  to  take  care 


28  THE  PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

of  the  four  standards ;  they  lay  stress  on  memory  of 
information  rather  than  on  reasoning,  on  information 
rather  than  conduct,  and  on  an  artificial  setting.  The 
thought  question  has  one  advantage  over  the  questions 
cited  above,  in  that  it  lays  stress  on  reasoning,  but  in 
other  respects,  like  the  foregoing  types,  it  is  inadequate 
to  meet  the  teaching  situation  demanded  above. 

(b)  The  Topic 

The  topical  method  of  organization  illustrated  on 
pages  25,  26,  and  27  may  emphasize  both  the  memory 
of  information  as  such  and  reasoning.  It  may  empha- 
size both  information  as  an  end  in  itself  and  informa- 
tion which  modifies  conduct.  The  artificial  setting  is 
stressed  more  than  the  natural  setting.  The  topics 
are  often  selected  dogmatically  without  particular 
reference  as  to  whether  they  fit  into  the  learner's 
problems.  Since  the  principles  are  often  stated  in 
the  topic  before  the  need  for  principles  arises,  it  is  safe 
to  assume  that  priority  of  principles  is  emphasized 
rather  than  the  priority  of  problem.  The  topical 
method  of  teaching  (the  topical  arrangement  of  subject 
matter),  on  the  one  hand, includes  more  than  the  method 
which  we  propose  and,  on  the  other,  does  not  include 
priority  of  problem  and  the  natural  setting  for  problems. 
Hence  the  topic  as  used  and  understood  in  practice  will 
not  take  care  of  the  four  elements  which  have  been 
proposed  and  which  are  necessary  to  cover  the  type  of 
teaching  cited  from  agriculture  and  household  science. 


AN  EXAMINATION  OP  TYPES  OF  TEACHING     29 

To  make  the  topic  do  this,  it  would  be  necessary  to 
enlarge  the  term  and  redefine  it. 

(c)  Problems,  Examples,  Originals,  and  Exercises 

The  term  "  problem  "  is  used  very  loosely  in  current 
practice.  "  Problem,"  "  example,"  "  original,"  and 
"  exercise  "  are  often  used  interchangeably  in  mathe- 
matics with  little  attention  to  exact  distinctions.  In 
geometry,  according  to  D.  E.  Smith  : 

"  The  problem  is  distinguished  from  the  theorem  as 
being  a  proposition  requiring  some  construction  to  be 
effected,  while  the  theorem  requires  some  assertion  to 
be  proved.  In  algebra  and  arithmetic  certain  writers 
have  used  the  word  '  example  '  to  cover  all  problems 
to  be  solved,  and  some  have  used  '  problem  '  to  refer 
only  to  concrete  exercises."  l 

The  term  "  example  "  is  often  used  in  mathematics 
for  a  sample  problem  or  solution  to  illustrate  a  certain 
mathematical  process.  In  general,  however,  the  ex- 
ample is  an  exercise  which  is  set  forth  for  the  pupil  to 
drill  upon  and  to  test  his  mathematical  skill.  The 
usual  distinction  between  it  and  the  problem  is  that 
the  former  is  a  symbolic  or  abstract  statement  of  the 
facts  while  the  latter  is  concrete.  The  distinction  made 
by  Henry  Suzzallo  may  be  cited  : 

1  The  '  example  '  is  usually  completely  expressed 
in  mathematical  symbols,  and  the  '  problem  '  is  com- 

1  Smith, D.  E.,  "Problem  in  Mathematics."  Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of 
Education. 


30  THE   PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

monly  stated  in  words.  .  .  .  In  the  case  of  the  example, 
the  mathematical  sign  tells  the  child  what  to  do, 
whether  to  add,  subtract,  multiply,  or  divide;  the 
(  example  '  being  a  kind  of  pre-reasoned  problem,  the 
pupil  has  only  to  manipulate  according  to  the  sign,  his 
whole  attention  throughout  being  focused  on  the 
formal  calculation.  In  the  second  case,  the  child  has 
two  distinct  functions :  he  must,  from  the  description 
of  the  situation  presented,  decide  through  the  process 
of  reasoning  what  he  is  to  do  (add,  subtract,  divide, 
or  multiply),  and  having  rendered  his  judgment,  he 
must  proceed  through  the  formal  calculation." 

The  term  "  original  "  is  frequently  used  in  geometry. 
It  is  similar  to  a  new  theorem ;  the  only  difference  is 
that  in  the  general  usage,  the  theorem  has  the  con- 
struction made  and  the  proof  partially  or  completely 
stated,  while  the  original  leaves  the  proof  to  the  learner. 
In  this  sense  it  is  no  different  from  the  problem  as 
defined  by  D.  E.  Smith,  on  page  29. 

The  term  "  exercise  "  is  used  in  a  very  broad  and 
indefinite  sense.  A  consideration  of  its  use  in  the 
textbooks  reveals  the  fact  that  it  frequently  covers 
what  has  been  defined  by  problems,  theorems,  ex- 
amples, and  originals. 

Before  giving  further  consideration  to  the  analysis 
of  these  terms,  the  definition  of  the  term  "  problem  " 
in  its  general  use  is  given  as  stated  by  John  Dewey : 

"  Every  conscious  situation  involving  reflection  pre- 
sents a  distinction  between  certain  given  conditions 

1  Suzzallo,  Henry,  "Example."     Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Education. 


AN  EXAMINATION  OF  TYPES  OF  TEACHING     31 

and  something  to  be  done  with  them ;  the  possibility  of 
a  change.  This  contrast  and  connection  of  the  given 
and  the  possible  confers  a  certain  problematic,  uncer- 
tain aspect  upon  those  situations  that  evoke  thought. 
There  is  an  element,  which  may  be  slight  or  which  may 
be  intense,  of  perplexity,  difficulty,  or  confusion. 
The  need  of  clearing  up  confusion,  of  straightening  out 
an  ambiguity,  of  overcoming  an  obstacle,  of  covering 
the  gap  between  things  as  they  are  and  as  they  may 
be  when  transformed,  is,  in  germ,  a  problem."  l 

In  relation  to  the  eight  standards,  while  the  problem 
may  lay  stress  on  either  the  memory  of  information  or 
reasoning,  it  usually  emphasizes  the  intellectual  phase 
of  the  solution  rather  than  its  modification  of  conduct. 
It  takes  into  account  the  natural  setting  but  may  and 
often  does  accept  an  artificial  setting,  and  as  inter- 
preted by  the  leading  advocates  of  the  problem  method 
it  favors  the  priority  of  problem  over  the  statement  of 
principles.  It  does  not,  therefore,  exclusively  include 
all  the  standards  which  are  necessary  to  take  care  of 
the  type  of  situations  as  illustrated  from  agriculture 
and  household  science  although  it  approximates  this 
more  closely  than  do  the  terms  hitherto  considered. 
The  shortcoming  of  the  problem  is  that  the  solution 
is  not  necessarily  carried  into  action,  but  rather  empha- 
sizes intellectual  activity.  Unless  the  meaning  of 
problem  as  the  term  is  ordinarily  used  is  modified,  it 
will  not  take  care  of  the  items  which  our  proposed 
concept  embraces. 

1  Dewey,  John,  "Problem."     Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Education. 


32  THE  PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

The  original  and  example  have  the  shortcomings  of 
the  problem  and  in  addition  they  lay  emphasis  on  the 
priority  of  principles.  The  exercise,  an  inclusive  term 
for  the  three  concepts,  therefore,  does  not  include  the 
necessary  standards. 

(d)  Drills,  Tests,  and  Reviews 

The  types  of  teaching  known  as  drills,  tests,  and 
reviews  will  be  considered  next.  Drill  is  defined  by 
Henderson  as  "  the  systematic  endeavor  to  fix  firmly 
habits  or  associations  between  stimuli  and  responses. 
These  associations  may  connect  sense  stimuli  with 
ideas  or  with  movements,  or  ideas  with  other  ideas 
or  with  movements."  *  Drills  may  mean  the  fixing  of 
a  physical  or  a  mental  habit ;  for  example,  to  pass  in 
the  school  line  properly  is  a  physical  habit,  to  be  able 
to  give  the  product  of  8X8  quickly  is  a  mental  habit. 
Drill  is  important,  since  much  of  the  work,  especially 
in  the  elementary  school,  involves  the  formation  of 
automatic  responses.  One  writer  states  that  three 
fifths  of  the  time  in  the  elementary  school  is  absorbed 
in  drill. 

Tests  are  used  to  measure  the  efficiency  of  the  work 
done  in  schools.  E.  E.  White  wrote  that  "  the  test 
has  for  its  end  the  disclosing  of  the  results  of  instruc- 
tion, drill,  and  study,  the  disclosing  of  the  pupil's 
attainments."  2 

1  Henderson,  E.  N.,  "Drill."     Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Education. 
*  White,  E.  E.,  "  Art  of  Teaching,"  p.  53.    American  Book  Co.,  1901. 


AN  EXAMINATION  OF  TYPES  OF  TEACHING     33 

A  definite  statement  of  the  meaning  of  a  "  review  " 
is  quoted  from  Suzzallo : 

"A  classroom  exercise  devised  to  survey  the  facts 
and  principles  previously  learned  by  observation,  dis- 
cussion, reading,  etc.,  is  a  review.  It  is  literally  a 
reviewing  of  already  acquired  knowledge  in  a  detailed 
and  completely  connected  way,  so  as  to  relate  the 
items  and  emphasize  the  more  important  of  them."  * 

These  types  of  teaching  involve  memory  of  informa- 
tion ;  the  test  and,  in  some  measure,  the  review,  may 
involve  reasoning.  They  may  also  modify  conduct 
but  in  a  limited  way,  because  the  act  is  not  carried  to 
completion.  But  these  concepts  will  not  lay  emphasis 
on  natural  setting  for  solution  or  on  priority  of  problem 
over  the  statement  of  principles.  Since  none  of  the 
terms  includes  the  necessary  elements  for  the  situations 
previously  stated,  without  changing  the  meaning  of 
these  terms  as  now  understood,  it  will  be  seen  that  they 
cannot  be  used  for  the  proposed  concept. 

(e)  Applications,  Illustrations,  Demonstrations, 
Experiments,  and  Practicums 

There  is  another  group  of  methods  which  may  be 
properly  discussed  together,  for  the  variation  in  their 
meanings  is  not  very  great, — applications,  illustrations, 
demonstrations,  experiments,  and  practicums. 

Application  is  the  fifth  step  of  the  Herbartian  lesson 

1  Suzzallo,  Henry,  "  Review."     Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Education. 


34  THE  PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

plan.  In  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  from  the  printed 
page  the  question  of  a  complete  mastery  may  be  raised. 
The  application  of  this  knowledge  to  actual  situations 
will  guarantee  a  more  complete  mastery.  In  general, 
\r  application  has  been  considered  as  the  step  which 
applies  principles  previously  learned.  Suzzallo  gives 
a  good  description  of  the  term  "  application  "  : 

"  In  modern  pedagogical  practice,  the  principle  has 
two  modes  of  expressing  itself :  (l)  In  requiring  that 
the  original  acquisition  of  knowledge  and  values  be  the 
product  of  action,  as  in  any  process  of  '  learning  by 
doing.'  This  is  the  characteristic  mode  that  the  prin- 
ciple takes  in  the  '  active  learning  '  of  the  kindergarten 
and  the  more  modern  type  of  primary  school.  It  is 
also  noted  especially  in  the  teaching  of  manual  training, 
laboratory  science,  drawing,  singing,  and  similar  sub- 
jects affording  a  large  opportunity  for  action.  (2)  In 
requiring  that  knowledge  largely  communicated  through 
conversation  or  the  printed  page  be  given  actual  ap- 
plication as  a  final  safeguard  against  defective  mastery. 
The  principle  takes  this  second  characteristic  mode  in 
the  teaching  of  the  more  abstract  subjects  (physics, 
ethics,  etc.)  to  mature  students.  In  this  way  general 
laws,  truths,  and  precepts  are  brought  into  effect, 
tested,  and,  if  necessary,  reconstructed."  l 

"The  term  "  illustration  "  means  an  example  or  com- 
parison by  which  a  subject,  a  statement,  or  a  principle 
is  elucidated  or  explained. 

1  Suzzallo,  Henry,  "Application."  Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Educa- 
tion. 


AN  EXAMINATION  OF  TYPES  OF  TEACHING     35 

v  Demonstration  "  in  its  literal  and  etymological  sense 
means  showing  something  to  be  thus  and  so,  pointing 
to  an  object  that  exists  or  an  event  that  occurs  so  as 
to  induce  perception  of  it.  ...  In  its  stricter  sense, 
demonstration  means  conclusions  that  follow  with 
rigid  necessity  from  premises  which  are  themselves 
regarded  as  necessary  truths,  or  which  are  derived  from 
such  self-evident  truths."  l  Demonstration  is  a  method 
by  which  the  teacher  or  instructor  conducts  the  experi- 
ment before  the  class.  It  is  used  to  teach  a  lesson 
which,  for  any  reason,  it  is  not  practicable  to  carry  out 
as  a  class  exercise.  The  teaching  in  the  natural  sciences 
is  sometimes  done  by  demonstration,  but  more  often 
the  teaching  is  carried  on  by  having  the  students 
conduct  individual  experiments. 

Teaching  by  experiment  is  "  part  of  the  general 
movement  for  learning  through  direct  observation." 
^The  instruction  by  experiment  is  sometimes  called  the 
method  of  "  rediscovery."  Suzzallo  considers  such  a 
use  of  the  term  loose,  "  inasmuch  as  there  is  little  or 
no  inventiveness  on  the  part  of  the  student  in  the 
devising  of  apparatus  or  the  arranging  of  conditions. 
These  are  all  prearranged  by  the  instructor  so  as  to 
make  a  conclusion  fairly  obvious.  Teaching  through 
experimentation  is  a  highly  rational  representation  of 
scientific  facts  rather  than  a  rediscovery." 

1  Dewey,  John,  "  Demonstration."  Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Educa- 
tion. 

1  Suzzallo,  Henry,  "Experiment,  Teaching  by."  Monroe's  Cyclo- 
pedia of  Education. 


36  THE  PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

The  experiment  gives  opportunity  for  action,  for 
providing  the  pupil  with  concrete  experiences  as  well  as 
verbal  information.  As  a  concept  to  take  care  of 
situations  such  as  we  have  proposed,  it  fails  in  propor- 
tion as  the  principles  are  first  stated  dogmatically, 
with  experiments  used  to  explain  or  illustrate  prin- 
ciples. This  is  too  often  understood  to  be  the  meaning 
of  experiments  in  teaching. 

v  The  term  "  practicum  "  represents  one  of  the  latest 
concepts  in  methods  of  teaching.  The  term  is  used 
particularly  in  agricultural  education,  y  After  a  very 
careful  search  the  writer  has  been  unable  to  find  a 
formal  definition  of  the  term  which  includes  the  ideas 
usually  set  forth  in  the  descriptions  given  of  practi- 
cums.  It  usually  means  the  application  of  principles 
already  learned  to  the  carrying  out  of  an  exercise  which 
has  economic  value  and  which  is  of  interest  to  the 
pupil.  A  characterization  of  the  term  "  practicum  " 
by  Heald  is  cited : 

"  The  word  '  practicum '  is  a  rather  broad  term, 
covering  the  briefer  exercises,  demonstrations,  verifi- 
cations, and  problems,  many  of  which  were  formerly 
called  experiments.  The  practicum  in  agriculture  may 
be  for  the  purpose  of  verification  or,  more  frequently, 
to  acquire  skill  in  a  process  which  may  be  needed  in 
the  project  work." 

1  Heald,  F.  E.,  "The  Home  Project  as  a  Phase  of  Vocational  Agri- 
cultural Education."  Bulletin  No.  21,  Agricultural  Series  3,  Federal 
Board  for  Vocational  Education,  p.  8,  1918. 


AN   EXAMINATION   OF  TYPES  OF  TEACHING     37 

The  definition  given  in  the  "  Standard  Dictionary  " 
is :  "In  some  colleges  and  universities  an  academic 
exercise  consisting  of  practical  work,  as  in  the  labora- 
tory." This  definition,  however,  makes  no  mention 
of  the  economic  aspect  of  the  work,  which  seems  to  be 
a  factor  emphasized  quite  generally. 

The  terms  "  application,"  "  demonstration,"  "  ex- 
periment," and  "  practicum,"  then,  do  not  make  pro- 
vision for  the  four  elements  which  our  proposed  concept 
includes  and  which  seem  worth  while  to  include.  In 
each  of  the  methods,  principles  are  given  priority  over 
problems.  In  application  the  principles  are  applied ; 
in  illustration  the  principles  are  illustrated  ;  in  demon- 
stration the  principles  are  shown  to  be  true  or  false ; 
in  experiment  the  principles  are  illustrated ;  in  the 
practicum  principles  are  applied  in  developing  some- 
thing economically  valuable.  In  no  case  is  the  interest 
of  the  pupil  aroused  by  being  placed  in  a  situation  where 
principles  must  be  developed  as  needed.  This,  after 
all,  seems  to  be  an  exercise  sufficiently  worth  while 
educationally  to  be  embodied  in  a  new  term. 

II.  SUMMARY 

For  the  sake  of  clearness  a  summarizing  statement 
of  the  shortcomings  of  the  commonly-used  terms  is 
herewith  offered. 

The  types  of  teaching  involved  in  the  use  of  memory 
questions,  thought  questions,  detailed  and  topical  ques- 
tions do  not  include  the  four  standards  set  up  in  the 


38 

proposed  concept,  for  they  lay  stress  on  memory  of 
information  rather  than  reasoning,  on  information 
rather  than  conduct,  and  on  an  artificial  setting  rather 
than  the  natural  setting  for  the  problem.  The  thought 
question  does  lay  stress  on  reasoning  but  in  other 
respects  it  has  for  the  purpose  of  describing  the  project 
the  shortcomings  of  the  other  questions. 

The  topic  is  inadequate  because  it  may  emphasize 
both  the  memory  of  information  as  such  and  reasoning ; 
it  emphasizes  information  as  an  end  in  itself  more 
than  information  which  modifies  conduct ;  it  stresses 
the  artificial  setting  and  the  priority  of  principles  over 
problems. 

The  problem  lacks  in  the  emphasis  it  places  on  the  in- 
tellectual aspect  of  the  solution  rather  than  the  modifica- 
tion of  conduct.  The  terms  "  original "  and  "example  " 
have  the  shortcomings  of  the  problem  and  in  addition 
lay  emphasis  on  the  priority  of  principles.  The  exer- 
cise, an  inclusive  term  for  problem,  original,  and  ex- 
ample, does  not  include  the  necessary  standards. 

Drills,  tests,  and  reviews  involve  memory  of  informa- 
tion, although  tests  and  reviews  may  involve  reasoning. 
These  terms  are  lacking  in  that  they  do  not  lay  emphasis 
on  natural  setting  for  solutions  or  on  priority  of  problem 
over  the  statement  of  principles. 

The  terms  "application,"  "demonstration,"  "illus- 
tration," "experiment,"  and  "practicum,"  do  not  make 
provision  for  the  four  elements  which  our  proposed  con- 
cept includes.  In  this  group  of  concepts  principles  are 


AN  EXAMINATION  OF  TYPES  OF  TEACHING     39 

given  priority  over  problems.  In  application  the  prin- 
ciples are  applied  ;  in  the  demonstration  the  principles 
are  shown  to  be  true  or  false ;  in  experiment  and  illus- 
tration the  principles  are  illustrated  ;  and  in  the  practi- 
cum  principles  are  applied  in  developing  something  of 
commercial  value. 

It  is  evident  that  the  foregoing  commonly-used 
terms  do  not,  in  their  ordinary  meaning,  denote  ex- 
clusively a  method  of  teaching,  involving  reasoning, 
primarily  for  the  sake  of  modifying  conduct  in  its 
natural  setting,  and  the  introduction  of  principles  as 
they  are  needed.  If  any  of  the  foregoing  concepts  or 
terms  are  used,  some  qualifying  adjective  would  have 
to  be  added  to  it  with  attendant  complication  arising 
from  confusion  of  meaning. 

In  the  next  chapter,  the  term  "project,"  with  defini- 
tion and  discussion,  will  be  proposed  to  include  these 
elements. 


CHAPTER  III 
DEFINITION  OF  THE  PROJECT 

I.  THE  NEED  FOR  THE  TERM  "PROJECT" 

THE  discussion  and  analysis  of  the  types  of  teaching 
considered  in  Chapters  I  and  II  show  that  terms  now 
in  use  are,  without  modification  of  meaning,  inade- 
quate to  take  care  of  teaching  situations  similar  to 
those  illustrated  in  current  approved  methods  of 
teaching  agriculture  and  household  science ;  and  since 
the  terms,  as  a  rule,  already  have  implications  that  are 
well  described  and  understood  in  common  practice  it 
is  preferable  to  adopt  a  new  term  to  describe  the  teach- 
ing situation  characterized  by  the  four  standards.  This 
term  which  we  propose  to  accept  and  define  is  the 
"  project." 

Historically  the  word  "  project  "  has  been  used  for 
many  years  in  business  and  in  some  specialized  forms 
of  education  1  with  a  rather  vague  meaning.  Recently 
it  has  been  accepted  by  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  as  an  outlined  plan  for  carrying  on  a 
piece  of  cooperative  work.  It  was  first  employed  in 
agricultural  education  by  R.  W.  Stimson,  who  used 
the  expression  "home  project"  in  the  agricultural 

1  Particularly  in  the  training  of  architects. 
40 


DEFINITION  OF  THE   PROJECT  41 

courses  of  the  Massachusetts  vocational  schools.  In 
1908-1910  the  unmodified  word  "  project  "  was  used 
by  Stimson,  Snedden,  Prosser,  and  Allen  in  their  report 
to  the  Massachusetts  Legislature.  Since  its  use  in 
Massachusetts,  the  term  with  many  variations  in  mean- 
ing has  been  applied  to  many  of  the  subjects  of  the 
course  of  study. 

II.  A  HISTORICAL  STATEMENT  OF  THE  PROJECT 

A  brief  historical  sketch  by  Heald  of  the  term 
"  project  "  in  agriculture  may  be  accepted  as  authori- 
tative. 

"  For  many  years  the  term  '  project '  has  been  used 
to  designate  carefully  planned  investigations  in  agri- 
cultural science  covering  a  considerable  period  of  time, 
frequently  demanding  several  years  for  their  comple- 
tion. Such  plans,  including  aims  and  methods,  have 
been  submitted  by  the  agricultural  experiment  stations 
of  the  several  states  and  approved  by  the  Office  of 
Experiment  Stations  in  the  States  Relations  Service 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

"  More  recently  the  same  term  '  project '  under 
practically  the  same  conditions  has  been  applied  to  the 
projects  in  demonstration  work  and  extension  teaching 
carried  out  under  the  Smith-Lever  Act.  The  term 
carries  with  it  the  idea  of  a  program  of  importance,  of 
some  duration,  and  an  expectation  of  certain  tangible 
and  valuable  results. 

'  This  term  '  project '  was  borrowed  first  by  second- 
ary school  teachers  of  science  and  manual  arts  because 
its  use  by  experiment  stations  suggested  an  idea  of 


42  THE  PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

value  in  connection  with  the  practical  phases  of  teach- 
ing these  subjects. 

"  In  connection  with  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in 
secondary  schools  the  idea  of  projects  at  home  crystal- 
lized and  took  on  the  name  of  '  home  project '  about 
1908  in  Massachusetts,  receiving  the  sanction  of  the 
State  Board  of  Education  under  suitable  legislation  in 
1911.  This  plan,  with  modifications  which  do  not 
change  the  principal  points  of  the  definition,  had  been 
adopted  in  most  of  the  states  which  had  constructive 
legislation  on  agriculture  in  the  secondary  schools 
previous  to  the  enactment  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act. 
In  its  work  on  secondary  and  elementary  school  agri- 
culture, the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
had  previously  accepted  the  prevailing  conception  of 
the  home  project,  issuing  several  publications  on  this 
basis."  l 

But  while  the  term  has  been  of  such  recent  origin 
as  a  school  concept,  the  idea  behind  the  term  has  been 
used  with  some  modification  of  one  sort  or  another  by 
law,  medicine,  engineering,  journalism,  and  the  foreign 
languages  for  some  time  ;  and  in  various  informal  ways 
has  been  slowly  developing  in  many  of  the  subjects  of 
the  curriculum  of  the  elementary  school,  the  high 
school,  the  normal  school,  and  the  college. 

1  Heald,  F.  E.,  "  The  Home  Project  as  a  Phase  of  Vocational  Agri- 
cultural Education."  Bulletin  No.  21,  Agricultural  Series  3,  p.  7, 
Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education.  Washington,  September, 
1918. 


DEFINITION   OF  THE   PROJECT  43 

III.  THE  JUSTIFICATION  AND  DEFINITION  OF  THE 
TERM  "PROJECT" 

The  justification  for  taking  a  term  that  has  been  in 
use  for  some  time  is  that  in  general  the  aim  of  those 
who  use  it  has  been  to  take  care  of  situations  such 
as  we  have  cited  from  agriculture  and  household 
science.  The  frequent  use  of  the  term  seems  to 
point  to  the  movement  seeking  for  a  word  that  will 
cover  the  above-mentioned  situations.  Again,  since 
few  formal  definitions  have  been  proposed  and  since 
the  limits  of  the  project,  as  gathered  from  the  litera- 
ture, have  not  been  clearly  drawn,  it  will  be  advan- 
tageous to  use  it  to  describe  such  types  of  teaching 
and  thus  avoid  the  necessity  of  proposing  another 
one. 

The  definition  of  the  project  which  is  proposed  for 
substantiation  is  the  following  : 

A.  'project  is  a  problematic  act  carried  to  completion  in 
its  natural  setting. 

In  this  definition  it  is  to  be  noted  that :  (a)  there  is 
implied  an  act  carried  to  completion  as  over  against 
the  passive  absorption  of  information ;  (6)  there  is 
insistence  upon  the  problematic  situation  demanding 
reasoning  rather  than  merely  the  memorizing  of  in- 
formation ;  (c)  by  emphasizing  the  problematic  aspect 
the  priority  of  the  problem  over  the  statement  of  prin- 
ciples is  clearly  implied ;  and  (d)  the  natural  setting 
of  problems  as  contrasted  with  an  artificial  setting  is 


44           THE   PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

explicitly  stated.     A  brief  discussion  of  these  particular 
phases  of  the  definition  will  be  given. 

(a)  The  presentation  of  subject  matter  or  the  staging 
of  a  situation  which  results  in  activity,  in  carrying  out 
the  act  to  completion  as  over  against  the  passive 
acceptance  of  information,  is  one  of  the  most  signifi- 
cant contributions  of  the  project.  For  the  term 
"  act,"  or  "  action,"  the  definition  of  E.  B.  Titchener 
may  be  accepted : 

"  In  its  most  general  meaning,  an  action  is  an 
organized  movement ;  less  generally,  it  is  a  move- 
ment of  a  locomotor  organism ;  .  .  .  The  characteristic 
feature  of  the  action  consciousness,  as  distinguished 
from  the  consciousness  so  far  considered,  is  its  pre- 
determination in  the  sense  of  the  idea  of  end.  The 
presentation  of  the  object  arouses  associative  tenden- 
cies in  the  usual  way ;  but  only  those  tendencies  are 
realized  which  lie  in  the  line  of  suggestion,  of  the 
meaning  of  the  idea  of  end. 

"  We  translate  this  fact  into  physiology  by  saying 
that  the  excitatory  processes  underlying  the  idea  of 
end  set  up  determining  tendencies ;  they  open  certain 
nervous  channels  as  it  were,  and  close  others ;  so  that 
the  consequent  excitations  find  their  path  laid  out  for 
them."  1 

In  ordinary  usage  of  the  term,  activity  means  the 
contraction  and  relaxation  of  muscles  in  physical 
activity.  For  educational  purposes,  the  meaning 

1  Titchener,  E.  B.,  "  A  Textbook  in  Psychology,"  pp.  448-449.  The 
Macmillan  Company,  1910. 


DEFINITION  OF  THE   PROJECT  45 

should  be  broadened  to  include  the  situations  defined 
by  Dewey,  "as  a  series  of  changes  definitely  adapted 
to  accomplishing  an  end." 

"  Hence  it  is  opposed  to  restless  and  random,  changes, 
as  well  as  to  mere  quiescence  and  passive  absorption. 
Dictated  exercises,  '  busy  work/  etc.,  when  not  accom- 
panied by  any  sense  of  a  result  to  which  they  naturally 
contribute,  are  not  activity  in  its  genuine,  or  intel- 
lectual significance ;  neither  is  undirected  overflow  of 
motor  impulse."  l 

There  are  many  different  kinds  of  activity,  intel- 
lectual, social,  religious,  and  physical.  The  project 
does  not  limit  itself  to  physical  activities  alone  but 
makes  provision  for  acts  of  other  types,  provided  that 
the  individual  takes  a  part  in  the  purpose,  choice,  and 
reflection  of  the  directed  action.  Thus  "  physical  ac- 
tivity when  not  accompanied  by  any  sense  of  the 
result "  is  not  considered  activity,  but  intellectual 
activity  when  accompanied  by  a  "  sense  of  result  "  is 
considered  an  activity  in  an  educational  sense. 

In  a  recent  article  describing  the  problem-project 
method,  W.  B.  Owen  considers  the  psychology  of  the 
act  an  essential  feature. 

'  The  third  fundamental  moment  in  the  problem 
method  is  the  psychology  of  action.  This  psychology 
is  based  on  the  anatomy  of  the  nervous  system.  This 
nervous  system  consists  of  a  series  of  five  elements, 

1  Dewey,  John,  "Activity,  Logical  Theory  and  Educational  Im- 
plications of."  Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Education. 


46           THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

sense  organ,  sensory  nerve,  brain,  motor  nerve,  muscle. 
A  complete  act  involves  all  five.  Reflex  and  instinctive 
acts  do  not  require  thinking.  Habitual  acts  may  dis- 
pense with  thinking.  New  situations,  however,  cannot 
be  met  by  reflex,  instinctive,  or  habitual  reactions. 
The  new  problem  requires  thought  for  its  solution. 
The  brain  suspends  the  activity  of  the  series  of  the 
five  elements  until  the  right  action  is  thought  out. 
Once  thought  out,  the  series  is  restored  and  the  act 
follows.  If  the  right  result  follows,  the  problem  is 
solved.  But  it  takes  a  complete  act  to  get  a  complete 
experience.  Only  the  complete  experience  can  test 
the  value  of  the  thought.  That  is  why  we  learn  by 
doing.  The  problem,  therefore,  calls  for  a  new  form 
of  action,  and  thinking  is  the  means  of  establishing 
this  new  form  of  action."  l 

The  importance  of  action  is  well  summarized  by 
W.  B.  Pillsbury : 

"  Every  once  in  a  while  one  observes  an  individual 
who  knows  the  right  and  approves,  but  does  wrong. 
The  only  cure  for  this  condition  is  to  develop  a  habit  of 
action.  This  can  be  done  most  effectually  by  making 
the  child  appreciate  the  advantages  of  action  and  the 
disadvantages  of  inaction.  An  individual  left  to  take 
the  natural  consequences  of  his  acts  will  soon  develop 
a  habit  of  doing  the  thing  that  he  sees  should  be  done, 
at  the  same  time  that  it  should  be  done.  It  is  only 
the  individuals  who  are  protected  from  the  conse- 
quences of  inaction  and  indecision  who  continue  in- 
active in  the  face  of  acknowledged  duties.  If  a  habit 

1  Owen,  W.  B.,  "The  Problem  Method."  Chicago  Schools  Journal, 
Vol.  1,  p.  5,  1918. 


DEFINITION   OF  THE   PROJECT  47 

becomes  established,  there  is  no  longer  question  whether 
a  thing  shall  be  done  or  not ;  the  situation  at  once 
evokes  a  decision  and  the  decision  evokes  the  act."  l 

The  educator,  in  giving  emphasis  to  the  different 
standards  of  teaching,  should  be  certain  that  emphasis 
is  not  given  to  passivity  and  that  pupils  are  not  "  pro- 
tected from  the  consequences  of  inaction  "  by  the 
methods  used  in  school.  The  project  includes  the  act 
and  gives  a  maximum  of  emphasis  to  training  in  action. 

The  expression  "  problematic  act  "  has  been  formu- 
lated and  used  in  the  definition  of  project  for  the 
distinct  purpose  of  emphasizing  not  only  the  act  but 
also  the  problematic  aspect  of  the  act. 

(6)  It  is  essential  that  the  project  be  understood  to 
include  a  problem ;  otherwise  it  could  not  be  differen- 
tiated from  habits  and  reflexes,  as  W.  W.  Charters  well 
illustrates : 

"  First,  the  project  is  a  problem.  This  differenti- 
ates it  from  reflex  and  habitual  acts  such  as  digestion 
and  respiration  which  are  normally  carried  on  without 
the  intervention  of  consciousness,  or  from  knitting  or 
dishwashing,  when  they  have  become  habitual.  Any 
of  these  may  become  problems,  as  the  control  of  respira- 
tion to  the  singer,  or  knitting  to  a  novice.  They  are 
problems  when  they  require  thought  but  when  they 
are  reflexive  or  habitual  they  are  no  longer  problems."  2 

1  Pillsbury,  W.  B.,  "Essentials  of  Psychology,"  p.  312.  The  Mac- 
niillan  Company,  1911. 

'Charters,  W.  W.,  "The  Project  in  Home  Economics  Teaching." 
The  Journal  of  Home  Economics,  Vol.  10,  p.  114,  March,  1918. 


43  THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

Habits  and  reflexes  such  as  the  foregoing,  since  a 
problem  is  not  involved,  nor  a  difficulty  demanding 
solution  present,  cannot  be  considered  as  acts  in  the 
sense  which  the  project  demands. 

The  project  may  of  course  include  habits  and  reflexes 
provided,  in  addition,  that  there  is  involved  a  problem 
or  a  situation,  demanding  reasoning  for  a  solution,  as 
the  following  illustration  of  controlling  the  San  Jose' 
scale  will  indicate.  The  lime-sulphur  mixture  may  be 
decided  upon  as  the  most  advisable  remedy  and  the 
consequent  purchase  of  lime  and  sulphur  may  take 
place  liabitually  with  a  minimum  of  thought.  The 
preparation  of  the  solution  and  the  actual  spraying  of 
the  trees  may  be  taken  care  of  largely  by  habit.  The 
problematic  phase  is  included  when  the  results  of  the 
treatment  are  watched  carefully  and  a  tentative  judg- 
ment rendered  as  to  its  effectiveness,  with  a  probable 
decision  to  vary  the  mixture  or  substitute  a  better 
remedy  to  meet  the  conditions. 

(c)  The  problem  aspect  of  the  project  not  only  in- 
volves reasoning  but  contains  a  distinct  implication 
of  priority  of  the  problem  situation  over  the  statement 
of  principles.  There  are  two  methods  of  arriving  at 
solutions  or  results  as  carried  on  in  life ;  the  one  is  a 
knowledge  of  principles  already  learned  as  when  the 
one  making  the  solution  knows  the  principles  and  then 
tries  to  apply  them ;  and  the  other,  which  we  call  the 
problem  method,  when  the  first  approach  is  made  by 
the  learner  to  a  difficulty.  ,  In  the  latter  method  prin- 


DEFINITION   OF  THE   PROJECT  49 

ciples  are  developed  as  needed,  while  in  the  former 
most  of  the  principles  have  been  learned  and  the 
problem  is  one  of  application.  The  problem  method 
carries  with  it  the  implication  that  principles  will  be 
developed  as  needed  and  not  learned  first.  Hence  the 
project,  which  makes  specific  provision  for  the  problem, 
lays  emphasis  on  its  priority  over  the  statement  of 
principles. 

The  method  of  arriving  at  a  solution,  where  the  prin- 
ciples have  been  learned  first  and  the  problem  is  largely 
one  of  applying  them,  can  with  greater  accuracy  be 
called  the  original,  laboratory  exercise,  application,  or 
practicum.  For  instance,  in  connection  with  the  study 
of  vegetables,  it  may  be  proposed  that  each  student 
prepare  a  garden  and  grow  the  vegetables.  If  this 
were  done  merely  to  illustrate  or  give  a  practical  labora- 
tory exercise  upon  the  principles  learned  in  school  it 
could  be  considered  as  an  application  or  laboratory 
exercise.  The  practicum  would  differ  only  in  the 
insistence  that  there  should  be  some  commercial  value. 
The  project  would  indicate  and  set  the  stage  of  the 
task,  but  most  of  the  principles  would  be  developed  by 
the  pupils  as  they  needed  them  in  the  prosecution  of 
their  work. 

(d)  The  implication  of  the  meaning  of  the  term 
"  natural  setting  "  has  been  discussed  in  Chapter  I,  and 
it  is  unnecessary  here  to  go  into  detail  other  than  to 
state  that  the  project  provides  for  the  natural  setting 
of  situations,  which  means  that  the  solutions  under- 


50          THE  PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

taken  in  school  are  no  different  because  they  are  school 
problems  than  they  would  be  were  they  to  come  up 
in  life  outside  the  school. 

A  statement  of  W.  W.  Charters  shows  the  difficulty 
in  describing  or  defining  natural  setting  : 

"  The  term  natural  setting  is  full  of  difficulties  of 
definition  when  carried  into  the  interior  of  any  body  of 
subject  matter,  but  for  our  purposes  [in  home  econom- 
ics] it  is  relatively  simple  as  an  illustration  will  make 
clear.  The  problem  of  canning  may  be  carried  into 
the  field  of  practice  by  the  canning  of  a  small  amount 
of  fruit  in  small  utensils,  and  the  student  may  learn 
the  practice  of  canning  or  perhaps  it  is  better  to  say 
obtain  a  simple  illustration  of  the  practice.  But  this 
is  not  the  natural  setting  of  the  action.  The  amount 
of  fruit  is  unusual.  If  the  student  were  canning  at 
home  she  would  have  to  can  a  peck  or  a  bushel  and 
would  have  to  use  several  jars.  The  process  is  also 
unnaturally  simple.  If  she  were  canning  a  bushel  of 
fruit  she  would  probably  have  simultaneously  to  watch 
a  fire,  get  many  jars  ready,  find  proper  places  to  set 
them,  or  attend  to  one  portion  while  another  is 
cooking."  l 

A  few  additional  illustrations  of  problems  in  natural 
setting  may  help  clarify  its  significance. 

The  determination  of  the  profitable  cows  in  the 
father's  dairy  herd  may  be  undertaken  by  the  boy, 
utilizing  the  scientific  method  taught  in  the  school.  He 
will  be  brought  face  to  face  with  many  difficulties  in 

1  Charters,  W.  W.,  "The  Project  in  Home  Economics  Teaching." 
The  Journal  of  Home  Economics,  Vol.  10,  p.  116,  March,  1918. 


DEFINITION   OF  THE   PROJECT  51 

keeping  a  daily  record,  in  perfecting  his  methods,  and 
in  evolving  his  principles  as  he  needs  them  in  making 
the  determination.  While  this  may  be  a  part  of  the 
school  program,  yet  the  setting  is  essentially  identical 
with  that  of  the  dairyman  who  makes  this  test. 

The  writer,  in  teaching  the  subject  of  machines  to  a 
mixed  class,  brought  to  the  school  yard  for  purposes 
of  illustration  a  windlass,  block  pulleys,  and  a  large 
board  which  could  be  used  as  an  inclined  plane.  The 
members  of  the  class  were  given  problems  in  the 
manipulation  of  the  pulleys  and  windlass  to  show  the 
advantages  of  the  machines.  The  whole  lesson  was 
interesting  and  probably  more  spectacular  than  a 
demonstration  given  in  the  laboratory  with  model 
pulleys  and  windlass.  But  while  this  lesson  may  have 
been  effective,  it  could  not  be  classed  as  a  project,  since 
the  setting  was  artificial.  One  of  the  members  of  the 
class,  however,  had  already  been  busy  with  the  task  of 
lifting  baled  hay  into  the  barn  loft  with  the  aid  of  a 
single  fixed  pulley,  which  gave  him  the  advantage  of 
direction  but  nothing  else.  For  him  this  exercise 
developed  into  a  project,  for  he  took  up  the  problem 
which  faced  him,  finding  his  principles  and  making 
the  application,  with  the  result  that  he  installed  a 
pulley  in  the  loft  with  the  ratio  of  1:6.  Later,  he 
reported  to  the  class  the  entire  development  of  this 
project,  laying  particular  emphasis  on  the  ease  of  the 
task  as  compared  with  the  difficulty  of  the  former 
procedure.  For  the  boy  this  was  a  project,  since  the 


52  THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

problem  was  carried  into  completion  in  its  natural 
setting. 

There  may  be  some  question  as  to  whether  a  pro- 
posed project  begun  in  its  natural  setting,  although 
not  completed  or  even  barely  started  in  its  natural 
setting,  can  be  considered  as  meeting  the  requirement 
of  carrying  the  act  to  completion  in  its  natural  setting. 
This  question  seems  significant  to  propose,  although 
the  literature  does  not  indicate  its  importance.  The 
task  begun  but  not  completed  in  its  natural  situation 
is  well  shown  in  the  following :  A  boy  may  have  the 
problem  of  finding  good  seed  corn  for  his  father.  He 
may  become  very  much  interested  at  the  time  in  the 
method  of  testing  seed  corn  because  of  the  proposed 
purchase.  If  the  boy  takes  some  of  the  seed  corn  to 
the  laboratory,  tests  it  as  a  mere  laboratory  exercise, 
and  stops  there,  he  has  the  exercise  arising  in  its 
natural  setting  but  not  carried  to  completion  in  its 
natural  setting.  This  may  be  called  an  uncompleted 
project.  If  the  boy  had  tested  the  seed  sufficiently  to 
be  able  to  give  his  father  scientific  advice,  the  process 
would  have  constituted  a  project.  Again,  the  growing 
of  a  few  rows  of  potatoes  may  be  the  project  accepted 
and  the  method  of  planting  potatoes,  the  purchase  of 
the  seed,  and  the  actual  planting  may  go  on,  but  if 
the  task  is  given  up  for  any  reason,  as  when  the  potato 
bugs  attack  the  plants,  then  the  project  is  not  com- 
pleted and  may  be  called  an  incomplete  project.  The 
following  year  the  boy  may  accept  as  his  problem  the 


DEFINITION   OF  THE   PROJECT  53 

method  of  destroying  the  potato-bug  pest,  and  may 
find  out  how  to  do  it,  yet  this  will  be  termed  a  prob- 
lem because  it  was  not  handled  in  connection  with  the 
actual  situation  of  controlling  the  pest. 

The  act  carried  to  completion  in  its  natural  setting  4 
indicates  that  the  learner  has  used  material  and  data 
in  a  way  which  is  no  different  from  what  it  would  be 
were  it  done  outside  of  school.  He  has  thereby  derived 
a  greater  functional  value  than  if  the  act  were  not 
completed  or  completed  in  an  artificial  setting. 

The  situations  which  were  proposed  in  connection 
with  the  study  of  household  science  and  agriculture 
will  be  considered  in  the  light  of  the  definition  given 
for  the  project,  to  see  if  situations  of  this  nature  can 
be  properly  cared  for  by  the  project  as  defined  and 
explained. 

The  boy  who  controlled  at  least  one  pen  of  poultry 
with  facilities  for  feeding  a  balanced  ration  and  trap 
nesting  individual  birds  for  comparison  of  productivity 
in  laying,  would  be  brought  into  a  situation  which 
demands  reasoning.  The  memory  of  information  would 
not  be  sufficient  to  carry  on  this  problem  for  the  con- 
ditions as  they  change  daily  demand  reasoning.  The 
results  of  his  investigation  and  the  principles  evolved 
as  needed  would  result  in  the  completion  of  the  act  in 
its  natural  setting.  If  the  boy  had  become  interested 
in  the  project,  had  started  it,  but  had  discontinued  it 
after  a  few  days  or  weeks,  no  results  of  any  conse- 
quence would  have  been  evident  and  it  would  have 


54          THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

illustrated  a  situation  arising  in  its  natural  setting  but 
not  carried  to  completion. 

The  girls  in  household  science  who  purchased  and 
prepared  well-balanced  meals  for  the  family  for  a 
specified  time  would  be  brought  into  many  situations 
which  demand  reasoning.  Since  the  conditions  of 
these  situations  would  change  daily,  reasoning  rather 
than  memory  of  information  would  be  demanded. 
Principles  and  methods  of  procedure  developed  as 
needed  would  result  in  completing  the  act  in  its  natural 
setting. 

jTo  provide  a  concept  which  takes  care  of  all  such 
situations  where  emphasis  must  be  given  to  reasoning, 
to  carrying  the  act  to  completion  (the  modification  of 
conduct),  to  the  priority  of  the  problem  and  to  the 
natural  setting  for  problems,  the  project,  as  defined  by 
the  writer,  is  satisfactory. 

IV.   CRITICISM  OF  CURRENT  DEFINITIONS 

Situations  such  as  the  foregoing  have  been  recognized 
for  a  long  time  by  educators  as  a  type  of  educational 
problem  which  challenges  attention,  even  though  it  has 
seemed  difficult  to  devise  a  teaching  unit  which  would 
handle  such  a  situation.  The  pressing  need  of  such  a 
concept  has  led  to  discussion  of  the  project  with  con- 
current definitions  which  vary  more  or  less  in  inclusive- 
ness,  but  which  indicate  a  search  for  a  concept  such  as 
proposed.  The  literature  dealing  with  the  project,  its 
significance  and  use,  is  quite  extensive.  The  published 


DEFINITION   OF   THE   PROJECT  55 

definitions  or  characterization  of  the  project,  together 
with  supplementary  definitions  received  from  writers 
at  the  request  of  the  author,  follow,  together  with 
criticisms  and  a  summary.  These  definitions  have 
been  proposed  by  teachers  who  may  be  classified  as 
follows :  (l)  general  educational  theory,  (2)  agricul- 
ture, (3)  science,  (4)  industrial  education,  (5)  Eng- 
lish, and  (6)  primary.  The  definitions  will  be  given 
first  according  to  this  group  classification.  A  discus- 
sion and  comparison  of  each  definition  with  the  four 
standards  which  have  been  proposed  in  Chapter  I  will 
follow. 

(a)   Definitions  Proposed  by  Teachers  Interested  in 
General  Educational  Theory 

Charters'  View  of  the  Project.  —  f  The  project  is 
considered  to  be  an  act  carried  to  completion  in  its 
natural  setting  and  involving  the  solution  of  a  rela- 
tively complex  problem.]"  * 

This  definition  by  Charters  gives  specific  emphasis  to 
the  problematic  phase  of  the  project  which  distinguishes 
it  from  habits  and  reflexes.  Mental  processes  are  con- 
sidered to  be  problems  when  they  involve  thinking. 
In  another  paper  Charters,  in  discussing  the  topical 
method,  calls  attention  to  the  weakness  of  this  method 
of  confining  most  of  the  mental  activity  largely  to 
memory.  Again,  in  this  same  paper  he  states  that 

1  Charters,  W.  W.,  "The  Project  in  Home  Economics  Teaching." 
The  Journal  of  Home  Economics,  Vol.  10,  p.  114,  March,  1918. 


56  THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

"  the  prime  essentials  of  the  project  are,  that  it  must 
involve  the  solution  of  a  problem  and  that  it  must 
culminate  in  action."  1  The  act  carried  to  completion 
is  a  recognition  by  Charters  that  conduct  is  favored 
over  information  as  an  end  in  itself.  The  priority  of 
the  problem  over  statement  of  principles  is  indicated 
by  the  author  in  the  paper,  "  Systematic  Topics,  Multi- 
Problems  and  Projects  " : 

"  In  the  topical  organization  principles  are  learned 
first,  while  in  the  project,  the  problems  are  proposed 
which  demand  in  the  solution  the  development  of  prin- 
ciples by  the  learner  as  needed." 

The  natural  situation  for  problems  is  one  of  the  main 
elements  in  the  definition,  fin  citing  other  advantages 
for  the  project,  the  writer  indicates  that  "  it  gives 
training  in  locating  and  solving  problems,  it  gives 
training  in  the  technique  of  action,  and  it  teaches 
subject  matter  in  connection  with  life  situations  JJ 

The  definition  proposed  by  Charters  designates  the 
act  as  complex.  'This  statement  seems  to  limit  its 
scope.j  There  may  be  certain  activities  which  can  very 
well  DC  classed  under  the  term  "  project "  and  yet  be 
relatively  simple.  For  example,  the  girl  who  decides 
to  make  a  special  loaf  of  bread  and  who  develops  new 
principles  as  needed  in  carrying  this  simple  act  to  com- 

1  Charters,  W.  W.,  "Systematic  Topics,  Multi-Problems  and  Proj- 
ects." Paper  read  before  Illinois  State  Teachers'  Association,  Dec.  28, 
1917. 

*  Ibid, 


DEFINITION  OF  THE   PROJECT  57 

pletion,  is  carrying  out  a  solution  which  is  a  project. 
If  such  situations  are  not  included  under  the  term 
"  project "  another  term  would  be  demanded,  which 
would  surely  lead  to  confusion,  particularly  in  the 
distinction  of  simple  acts  and  complex  acts. 

The  definition  suggested  by  Charters,  then,  includes 
the  four  standards  of  teaching  but  seems  to  limit  its 
scope  in  including  only  relatively  complex  problems. 

Kilpatrick' s  Proposals.  —  The  following  definition  is 
proposed  by  W.  H.  Kilpatrick : 

'  The  term  '  project '  contemplates  a  complete  act 
(or  experience)  which  the  agent  projects,  purposes,  and 
within  limits  sees  through  to  completion."  1 

Since  the  learner  projects  and  purposes  the  solution 
it  seems  evident  that  more  emphasis  is  placed  on  reason- 
ing than  on  reproductive  memory.  In  projecting  a 
solution  conditions  will  vary ;  new  situations  will  arise 
which  demand  some  degree  of  reasoning.  The  com- 
plete act  is  contemplated  but  apparently  not  enough 
emphasis  is  laid  on  carrying  the  act  to  completion,  for 
the  latter  part  of  the  definition  indicates  that  there  are 
limitations  in  carrying  it  through.  Since  conduct  is 
modified  to  the  extent  that  the  act  is  carried  to  com- 
pletion, we  seem  warranted  in  making  the  statement 
that  the  maximum  modification  of  conduct  is  not  a 
significant  element  in  this  definition.  There  seems  to 

1  Kilpatrick,  W.  H.  Definition  proposed  in  a  letter  to  the  writer, 
March  21,  1918. 


58 

be  a  slight  inconsistency  in  the  definition,  for  if  the 
project  contemplates  a  complete  act,  it  would  seem  that 
the  realization  of  a  complete  act  would  be  necessary 
rather  than  an  approximation  to  one,  as  indicated  in 
the  phrase,  "  within  limits  sees  through  to  completion." 
The  priority  of  the  problem  over  the  statement  of 
principles  and  the  provision  for  the  natural  setting  of 
the  problem  are  not  clearly  indicated.  The  definition 
by  Kilpatrick  includes  provision  for  reasoning  and  for 
the  completion  of  the  act  "  within  limits,"  but  makes 
no  clear  provision  for  the  natural  setting  of  problems 
or  the  priority  of  the  problem  over  the  statement  of 
principles. 

In  a  published  article  appearing  after  the  above 
definition  was  sent  to  the  writer,  Kilpatrick  defines 
the  project  as  a  "  wholehearted  purposeful  activity 
proceeding  in  a  social  environment,  or  more  briefly  in 
the  unit  element  of  such  activity,  the  hearty  purposeful 
act." 

"  It  is  to  this  purposeful  act  with  the  emphasis  on 
the  word  purpose  that  I  myself  apply  the  term 
'project." 

An  illustration  of  the  term  "  project "  or  "  hearty 
purposeful  act  "  is  cited. 

"  Suppose  a  girl  makes  a  dress,  if  she  planned  it,  if 
she  made  it  herself,  then  I  should  say  the  instance  is 

1  Kilpatrick,  W.  H.,  "  The  Project  Method."  Teachers  College 
Record,  Vol.  19,  No.  4,  September,  1918,  p.  320. 


DEFINITION   OF   THE   PROJECT  59 

that  of  a  typical  project.  We  have  a  wholehearted 
purposeful  act  carried  on  amid  social  surroundings. 
That  the  dressmaking  was  purposeful  is  clear;  the 
purpose  once  formed  dominated  each  succeeding  step 
in  the  process  and  gave  unity  to  the  will.  That  the 
girl  was  wholehearted  in  the  work  was  assured  in  the 
illustration.  That  the  activity  proceeded  in  a  social 
environment  is  clear;  other  girls  at  least  are  to  see 
the  dress."  l 

Since  the  learner  plans  the  solution  with  whole- 
hearted activity  it  would  seem  that  reasoning  is  given 
more  emphasis  than  the  memory  of  information  (repro- 
ductive memory).  In  planning  and  carrying  through 
the  solution,  new  situations  will  arise,  conditions  will 
vary,  which  will  demand  reasoning.  Apparently  the 
act  carried  to  completion  is  contemplated ;  this  is  in- 
dicated by  the  illustration  of  the  girl  making  the  dress. 
"  Suppose  a  girl  makes  a  dress,  if  she  planned  it,  if  she 
made  it  herself,  then  I  should  say  the  instance  is  that 
of  a  typical  project."  Note  that  the  illustration  men- 
tions the  completion  of  the  dress.  It  is  probable  that 
the  complete  act  is  considered,  for  the  definition  does 
explicitly  state  "  wholehearted  purposeful  activity  pro- 
ceeding in  a  social  environment."  The  definition  pro- 
vides for  the  activity  being  carried  on  but  not 
necessarily  completed  unless  the  expression  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  definition  takes  care  of  this  "  or  more  briefly, 

1  Kilpatrick,  W.  H.,  "  The  Project  Method."  Teachers  College 
Record,  Vol.  19,  No.  4,  September,  1918,  p.  321. 


60  THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

in  the  unit  element  of  such  activity,  the  hearty  purpose- 
ful act."  While  the  illustration  seems  to  indicate  that 
the  act  is  carried  to  completion,  it  would  be  more 
clarifying  to  have  it  explicitly  stated  in  the  definition. 
The  priority  of  the  problem  over  the  statement  of 
principles  and  provisions  for  the  natural  setting  of  the 
problem  are  included  in  the  definition.  The  natural 
setting  is  probably  taken  care  of  by  Kilpatrick  in  his 
insistence  that,  the  activity  proceed  in  a  "  social  en- 
vironment." (The  use  of  the  term  "  social  environ- 
ment "  is  somewhat  confusing  owing  to  the  different 
meanings  which  the  term  "social"  has  taken  on.)  Con- 
sequently it  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  or  not 
"  social  environment  "  as  used  by  Kilpatrick  fulfills 
the  requirements  of  "  natural  setting  "  as  used  by  the 
writer.  Any  act  is  social  which  has  any  relation  to 
anyone  else.  The  antithesis  of  this  is  non-social.  Social 
may  mean  cooperation  —  the  sharing  of  purposes, 
ends,  or  aims}  Anti-social  is  the  antithesis  of  this 
meaning  of  social.  Again,  social  means  understanding, 
appreciating  the  motives,  desires,  ambitions,  and  im- 
pulses of  others.  The  probable  antithesis  of  this  mean- 
ing of  social  is  formal  "  righteousness  "  like  that  of  the 
Pharisees.  If  social  were  to  be  interpreted  broadly,  as 
in  the  first  meaning  of  social,  then  "  social  environ- 
ment "  would  approximate  the  meaning  of  "  natural 
setting."  He  considers  the  "  purposeful  act  "  a  typical 
unit  of  the  worthy  life  and  "  as  the  purposeful  act  is 
thus  the  typical  unit  of  the  worthy  life  in  a  democratic 


DEFINITION   OF  THE   PROJECT  61 

society,  so  also  should  it  be  made  the  typical  unit  of 
school  procedure.  We  of  America  have  for  years  in- 
creasingly desired  that  education  be  considered  as  life 
itself  and  not  as  a  mere  preparation  for  later  living."  l 
Kilpatrick,  in  this  definition,  makes  provision  for 
reasoning  ;  for  carrying  the  act  to  completion  (although 
not  specifically  stated  in  the  definition,  but  provided  for 
in  the  illustrations) ;  for  the  natural  setting  of  problem 
(activity  to  proceed  in  a  "  social  environment  ") ;  and 
for  the  priority  of  the  problem  over  the  statement  of 
principles. 

Bobbitt's  Suggestions.  —  Although  Bobbitt  does 
not  specifically  define  the  project  in  his  study  of  the 
curriculum,  yet  he  gives  an  illustration  of  the  project 
method  which  may  well  be  examined  to  see  the  ele- 
ments which  he  includes  in  the  term  "  project." 

"  On  the  work-level,  the  task  to  be  performed  is 
central ;  and  the  science  is  organized  about  it.  A  boy, 
for  example,  in  the  school  shop  wishes  to  construct  and 
operate  a  telegraphic  apparatus.  This  ambition  will 
serve  as  the  center  of  the  science  training.  He  will  be 
motivated  to  gather  information  concerning  batteries, 
wiring,  electro-magnets,  making  and  breaking  of  cir- 
cuits, etc.  He  will  learn  just  the  things  that  he  needs 
for  the  task  in  hand ;  and  nothing  more  at  the  time. 
Through  using  his  ideas  in  the  planning  and  in  the 
actual  construction  he  comes  to  realize  the  full  signifi- 
cance of  the  various  facts.  The  derived  interest 

1  Kilpatrick,  W.  H.,  "The  Project  Method."  Teachers  College 
Record,  Vol.  19,  No.  4,  September,  1918,  p.  323. 


62  THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

aroused  is  for  most  individuals  more  potent  than  the 
native  interest  in  the  abstract  science  facts  and  prin- 
ciples. For  this  reason  the  knowledge  is  more  effec- 
tively driven  home  and  remembered. 

"  There  is  a  strong  drift  in  public  education  toward 
this  project-method  of  organization.  The  school  corn 
clubs,  for  example,  assemble  all  possible  information 
relative  to  the  growth  of  corn  and  use  it  for  the  control 
of  practical  procedure.  .  .  .  The  tree-protecting  league 
gathers  all  possible  facts  concerning  the  species  of  trees 
attacked  by  insects,  fungi,  etc.,  together  with  the 
scientific  information  needed  for  combating  the  destruc- 
tive influences.  They  reject  for  the  time  all  botanical 
or  entomological  information  that  has  no  bearing  on 
the  problem  in  hand.  ...  In  brief,  one  learns  the 
things  needed  for  directing  action  in  connection  with 
the  situations  in  which  the  action  is  to  take  place,  and 
just  previous  to  the  drawing  up  of  the  plans.  Only 
under  such  circumstances  can  knowledge  properly  reveal 
its  significance,  be  rightly  focused  upon  human  affairs, 
or  be  normally  assimilated.  Knowing  and  doing  should 
grow  up  together."  1 

Since  the  learner  plans  the  solution  and  in  its  de- 
velopment gathers  information,  it  is  clear  that  reason- 
ing is  given  a  more  prominent  place  than  memory  of 
information.  In  planning  and  carrying  out  the  solution 
reasoning  will  be  used  and  the  true  significance  of  the 
facts  will  be  realized.  "  Through  using  his  ideas  in 
the  planning  and  in  the  actual  construction  he  comes 

1  Bobbitt,  Franklin,  "  The  Curriculum,"  p.  30.  Houghton  Mifflin 
Company,  1918. 


DEFINITION  OF  THE   PROJECT  63 

to  realize  the  full  significance  of  the  various  facts." 
The  act  carried  to  completion  is  implied  by  Bobbitt. 
In  the  quotation  in  this  paragraph  he  mentions  "  the 
actual  construction,"  which  seems  to  show  that  the 
act  carried  to  completion  is  made  a  part  of  the  project 
idea.  Again,  the  act  is  considered.  "  In  brief,  one 
learns  the  things  needed  for  directing  action  in  con- 
nection with  the  situations  in  which  the  action  is  to 
take  place,  and  just  previous  to  the  drawing  up  of  the 
plans."  Since  the  act  is  carried  to  completion,  con- 
duct is  modified  more  than  if  the  memory  of  informa- 
tion for  its  own  sake  were  emphasized. 

The  problem  is  given  priority  over  the  statement  of 
principles.  In  the  illustrations  which  Bobbitt  cites, 
principles  are  learned  as  needed  in  the  solution  as  this 
quotation  indicates.  "  He  will  learn  just  the  things 
he  needs  for  the  task  in  hand  "  and  again  he  suggests 
that  the  "  primary  thing  in  the  student's  consciousness 
is  the  project,  the  piece  of  work  to  be  done;  not  the 
satisfaction  of  intellectual  interests."  The  natural  set- 
ting for  the  problem  seems  to  be  included  in  Bobbitt's 
description  and  illustration  of  the  project,  although 
this  is  not  specifically  emphasized. 

The  elements  included  by  the  writer  in  the  project 
idea  are  taken  care  of  in  Bobbitt's  illustrations.  The 
modification  of  conduct  and  the  priority  of  the  problem 
are  illustrated,  while  the  natural  setting  for  the  problem 
and  the  act  carried  to  completion,  although  not  specifi- 
cally mentioned,  seem  to  be  elements. 


64  THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

Stone's  Definition.  —  In  order  to  understand  clearly 
the  definition  proposed  by  C.  W.  Stone :  "  A  project 
is  a  Life  Topic  in  which  the  processes  and  objects  of 
learning  are  largely  manual,"  l  additional  quotations  will 
be  given,  showing  the  author's  meaning  of  the  terms 
used.  "  Life  Topics  "  may  be  variously  defined  as, 

"  Units  of  learners'  experience  in  which  both  learners 
and  teachers  recognize  worthy  value. 

"  Units  of  learners'  experience  that  are  worthy  of 
re-making  in  terms  of  more  formal  subject  matter. 

"  Units  of  learners'  experience  out  of  which  the  more 
formal  subject  matter  may  be  differentiated. 

"  Phases  of  life  that  are  worthy  of  improvement. 

"  A  consideration  of  these  definitions  leads  one  im- 
mediately to  an  analysis  of  life  value,  and  a  helpful 
analysis  is  in  terms  of  thinking,  doing,  and  feeling : 
for  it  is  in  these  three  lines  that  we  do  our  living  and 
have  our  experience.  A  Life  Topic,  then,  in  which 
thinking  predominates,  evidently  holds  values  that  are 
to  an  extent  different  and  distinguishable  from  the 
value  of  a  Life  Topic  in  which  doing  predominates ; 
and  a  Life  Topic  in  which  feeling  is  the  important 
value  is  also  distinguishable  from  either  of  the  above. 
The  terms  which  seem  best  to  fit  these  three  types  of 
Life  Topics  are  "  problem,"  "  project,"  and  "  appre- 
ciation unit."  The  definitions  of  these  terms  may  be 
worded,  then : 

"  A  '  problem  '  is  a  Life  Topic  (unit  of  learners'  ex- 
perience) in  which  the  processes  and  objects  of  learning 
are  largely  mental. 

1  Stone,  C.  W.,  "  Teaching  Units."  Summary  sent  to  writer, 
March  21,  1918. 


DEFINITION  OP  THE   PROJECT  65 

f 

*\jk  '  project '  is  a  Life  Topic  in  which  the  processes 
and  objects  of  learning  are  largely  manual. 

"  An  '  appreciation  unit '  is  a  Life  Topic  in  which 
the  processes  and  objects  of  learning  are  largely 
emotional. 

"  It  should  not,  of  course,  be  understood  that  there 
will  be  no  manual  elements  in  a  problem  or  that  there 
will  be  no  thinking  in  a  project ;  much  less  would  it 
be  safe  to  come  to  the  conclusion  that  there  will  be 
no  appreciation  in  problems  and  projects."  l 

The  definition  outlined  by  Stone  makes  provision 
for  reasoning,  but  the  wording  states  negatively  that 
there  may  be  reasoning  but  not  positively  that  it  must 
be  included :  "It  should  not,  of  course,  be  under- 
stood .  .  .  that  there  will  be  no  thinking  in  a  project." 
Life  Topics  defined  as  "  phases  of  life  that  are  worthy 
of  improvement  and  in  which  the  learner  recognizes  a 
worthy  value/'  indicate  that  the  modification  of  con- 
duct has  been  considered.  Another  example  shows 
that  the  completed  act  is  an  element  in  the  definition : 

"  In  a  community  in  which  cotton  will  mature  it  is 
best  studied  as  a  project,  and  the  work  will  include  the 
raising  of  the  plant,  picking  of  the  fibre,  simple  ginning, 
etc."  2 

The  natural  setting  finds  its  implication  in  the 
writer's  use  of  the  Life  Topic,  which  gives  to  the  proj- 
ect the  setting  that  an  activity  would  have  if  taken  up 

1  Stone,   C.    W.,    "  Teaching   Units."    Summary   sent   to   writer, 
March  21,  1918. 
'Ibid. 


66  THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

out  of  school.  The  priority  of  the  problem  over  the 
statement  of  principles  is  indicated  in  the  definition 
of  Life  Topics  as  "  units  of  the  learners'  experience 
that  are  worthy  of  re-making  in  terms  of  more  formal 
subject  matter."  It  is  quite  likely  that  the  statement 
of  principles  first  would  indicate  what  Stone  means  by 
formal  subject  matter. 

Snedden's  Use  of  the  Term.  —  Among  the  men  in 
Massachusetts  who  used  the  term  "  project  "  in  connec- 
tion with  agricultural  teaching  particularly  as  applied 
to  the  home  project,  none  was  more  prominent  in  this 
leadership  than  David  Snedden.  The  discussions  and 
uses  of  the  project  made  by  Snedden  are  discussed 
under  this  first  classification  rather  than  under  the 
definitions  proposed  by  men  interested  in  agricultural 
education  because  of  Snedden's  interest  in  and  con- 
tributions to  general  educational  theory.  His  descrip- 
tion of  the  term  "  project  "  is  cited  : 

"  A  few  years  ago  some  of  us  began  using  the  word 
project  to  describe  a  unit  of  educative  work  in  which 
the  most  prominent  feature  was  some  form  of  positive 
and  concrete  achievement.  The  baking  of  a  loaf  of 
bread,  the  making  of  a  shirtwaist,  the  raising  of  a  bushel 
of  corn,  the  making  of  a  table,  the  installation  of  an 
electric-bell  outfit  —  all  these,  when  undertaken  by 
learners,  and  when  so  handled  as  to  result  in  a  large 
acquisition  of  knowledge  and  experience,  were  called 
projects.  Projects  of  this  kind  might  be  individual  or 
joint  (cooperative).  They  might  be  executed  in  an 
ordinary  lesson  period  or  they  might  claim  the  efforts 


DEFINITION   OF  THE   PROJECT  67 

of  the  learner  for  one  or  more  hours  per  day  for  several 
weeks. 

'  The  following  were  the  primary  characteristics  of 
projects  as  thus  conceived  :  (a)  the  undertaking  always 
possessed  a  certain  unity ;  (6)  the  learner  himself  clearly 
conceived  the  practical  end  or  outcome  to  be  attained, 
and  it  was  always  expected  that  this  outcome  was  full 
of  interest  to  him,  leading  him  on,  as  to  a  definite  goal 
to  be  won ;  (c)  the  standards  of  achievement  were 
clearly  objective  —  so  much  so  that  the  learner  and 
his  fellows  could,  in  large  part,  render  valuable  decisions 
as  to  the  worth  —  in  an  amateur  or  in  a  commercial 
sense  —  of  the  product ;  and  (d)  the  undertaking  was 
of  such  a  nature  that  the  learner,  in  achieving  his 
desired  ends,  would  necessarily  have  to  apply  much 
of  his  previous  knowledge  and  experience  —  perhaps 
heretofore  not  consciously  held  as  usable  in  this  way 
(e.g.  art,  science,  mathematics,  special  tool-skill)  — 
and  probably  would  have  to  acquire  also  some  new 
knowledges  and  skills.  In  a  sense  any  concrete  job 
undertaken  in  a  vocational  school  where  the  realiza- 
tion of  valuable  results  in  the  product  constitutes  an 
important  end,  might  be  called  a  '  project '  but  to  be  an 
'  educational  project '  such  a  job  (e.g.  .  .  .  wiring  a 
room,  growing  a  half-acre  of  potatoes,  etc.)  must  be 
of  such  a  nature  as  to  offer  large  opportunity,  not  only 
for  the  acquisition  of  new  skill  and  experience  in  prac- 
tical manipulation,  but  also  for  applications  of  old,  and 
learning  of  new,  '  related  knowledge,'  art,  science, 
mathematics,  administration,  hygiene,  social  science, 
etc."  1 

1  Snedden,  David,  "  Project  as  a  Teaching  Unit,"  School  and  Society, 
Vol.  IV,  pp.  420-421,  1916. 


68          THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

The  particular  element  which  Snedden  seems  to 
emphasize  in  the  project  is  "  some  form  of  positive  and 
concrete  achievement."  Much  attention  is  given  to 
the  application  of  knowledge  previously  learned. 
Although  there  is  a  suggestion  that  new  knowledge  and 
principles  will  be  developed  as  needed,  the  definition 
indicates  that  probably  new  knowledges  and  skills 
would  be  acquired.  Both  the  application  of  old  knowl- 
edge and  the  acquisition  of  new  are  recognized  in  the 
statement  in  which  he  suggests  that  an  "  educational 
project  "  must  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  offer  oppor- 
tunities not  only  for  the  acquisition  of  new  knowledge 
but  also  for  the  application  of  the  old. 

The  fact  that  Snedden  emphasizes  positive  achieve- 
ment so  strongly  implies  that  the  act  must  be  com- 
pleted, the  work  carried  to  a  conclusion  ;  thus  modifying 
conduct  maximally  as  contrasted  with  the  memory  of 
information  for  its  own  sake.  Reasoning  is  emphasized 
because  the  individual  must  carry  out  the  project  under 
varying  conditions,  applying  old  knowledge,  develop- 
ing new,  as  the  situations  demanded.  While  the 
natural  setting  for  problems  is  not  mentioned  as  a 
part  of  Snedden's  definition,  yet  the  illustrations  cited 
(growing  a  half-acre  of  potatoes,  taking  commercial 
charge  of  three  cows  for  a  year,  wiring  a  room)  would 
seem  to  justify  the  statement  that  he  does  make  the 
natural  setting  an  element  in  the  project.  The  priority 
of  the  problem  over  the  statement  of  principles  is  not 
considered  to  be  essential  by  Snedden,  in  fact  the 


DEFINITION  OF  THE   PROJECT  69 

project  in  his  opinion  applies  principles  already  learned 
and  in  carrying  the  work  to  completion  develops  new 
ones.  The  definition  and  use  of  the  project  as  out- 
lined by  Snedden  is  limited  in  scope,  for  seemingly  only 
acts  which  demand  manual  activities  are  considered 
projects.  This  would  make  it  difficult  to  provide 
projects  in  civics,  sociology,  and  English. 

(b)  Definitions  Proposed  by  Men  Interested  in 
Agricultural  Education 

Stimson,  Allen,  and  Prosser.  —  Several  definitions 
or  characterizations  have  resulted  from  the  extensive 
use  of  projects  in  the  field  of  agriculture.  The  defini- 
tion by  Stimson,  Allen,  and  Prosser  is  as  follows : 

"  Finally,  a  farming  project,  as  the  term  is  here  used, 
is  a  thing  to  be  done  on  a  farm,  which,  in  the  prepara- 
tion for  doing  it  and  the  carrying  of  it  out  to  a  success- 
ful resultz  would  involve  a  thoroughgoing  educational 
process.  A  complete  definition  of  a  '  project '  as  here 
used  has  three  elements.  .  .  .  (l)  something  to  be  done 
on  a  farm,  (2)  under  specified  conditions  and  for  a 
specified  valuable  result,  and  (3)  requiring  a  thorough- 
going training.  The  farming  project  may  include  (l) 
improvement  projects ;  (2)  experimental  projects  ;  and 
(3)  productive  projects."  l 

1  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  Massachusetts  on  Agri- 
cultural Education,  1911,  pp.  41-43.  Also  reported  in  Stimson, 
R.  W.,  "The  Massachusetts  Home  Project  Plan  of  Vocational  Agri- 
cultural Education,"  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  579,  p.  13, 
1914. 


70  THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

This  definition  makes  a  specific  place  for  the  natural 
setting  of  problems ;  they  are  connected  with  the  farm 
and  its  activities.  The  project  modifies  conduct  in 
laying  emphasis  on  carrying  the  act  to  completion 
"  for  a  specified  valuable  result  " ;  and  reasoning  is 
implied  in  the  statement  that  it  must  involve  "  a 
thoroughgoing  educational  process."  The  meaning  of 
this  expression  is  uncertain,  but  since  the  conditions  of 
the  projects  outlined  vary,  and  the  pupil  must  make 
his  own  decisions  under  these  varying  conditions, 
reasoning  as  over  against  memory  is  certainly  implied 
as  a  necessary  element. 

The  definition  does  not  indicate  the  priority  of  the 
problem  over  the  statement  of  principles  but  Stimson 
seems  to  indicate  this  in  the  following  quotation  : 

"  The  training  of  the  boy  who  desires  a  vocational 
agricultural  diploma  includes,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
subject  study  of  English,  history,  civics,  botany, 
chemistry,  and  general  agricultural  subjects,  such  as 
soils,  tillage,  and  crop  rotation.  That  this  subject 
study  does  not  precede  but  accompanies  or  follows 
the  boy's  project  study  directly  and  decidedly  enhances 
its  value."  l 

This,  of  course,  does  not  state  that  the  priority  of 
the  problem  over  the  statement  of  principles  is  always 
desirable.  In  another  statement,  however,  Stimson 

1  Stimson,  R.  W.,  "  The  Massachusetts  Home  Project  Plan  of  Vo- 
cational Agricultural  Education,"  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin 
579,  p.  37,  1914. 


DEFINITION   OF  THE   PROJECT  71 

implies  that  the  project  is  looked  upon  as  a  means  of 
illustrating  and  using  principles  already  known  as  well 
as  to  develop  new  principles  and  acquire  new  knowl- 
edge : 

"  The  movement  from  observed  data  of  agricultural 
production  to  general  laws  and  principles  is  followed  by 
the  reverse  movement,  which  is  embodied  in  the  ap- 
plication of  the  laws  and  principles  of  science  — 
embodied,  that  is  to  say,  in  economic  agricultural 
enterprises  conducted  by  the  pupils  on  their  home 
farms  under  competent  school  supervision."  l 

W.  H.  French.  —  In  a  report  on  agriculture  in  the 
high  schools  of  Michigan,  published  in  1916,  W.  H. 
French  gives  a  definition  and  illustrations  : 

'  The  '  home  project '  may  be  defined  as  a  piece  of 
farm  work  selected  by  the  student  with  which  to  illus- 
trate some  theory,  or  to  demonstrate  some  plan  of 
procedure  which  has  been  presented  in  the  course  of 
the  school  instruction.  For  instance,  a  certain  theory 
has  been  presented  in  regard  to  corn  culture,  and  the 
boy  undertakes  to  raise  an  acre  or  more  of  corn  in 
accordance  with  the  instruction.  This  would  con- 
stitute a  home  project.  Or  if  a  certain  plan  of  raising 
alfalfa  had  been  taught,  the  boy  would  elect  to  demon- 
strate the  truth  of  the  teaching  by  raising  a  plot  of 
alfalfa ;  or  the  necessity  for  keeping  a  record  of  milk 
or  butter  production  of  dairy  cows  has  been  taught  in 
school,  and  the  boy  undertakes  to  keep  a  record  of  each 

1  Stimson,  R.  W.,  "  The  Massachusetts  Home  Project  Plan  of  Vo- 
cational Agricultural  Education,"  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin 
579,  p.  38,  1914. 


72  THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

cow  in  his  father's  herd  for  the  season  to  show  whether 
they  are  profitable  animals  to  keep  on  the  farm."  1 

The  project  as  conceived  by  French  carries  the  act 
to  completion  in  its  natural  setting  and  thus  provides 
for  the  modification  of  conduct,  but  the  definition  does 
not  provide  for  the  priority  of  the  problem  over  the 
statement  of  principles ;  on  the  contrary,  he  considers 
that  the  project  is  a  piece  of  work  selected  to  illustrate 
some  principles  already  studied  or  learned.  Reasoning 
is  provided  for  only  on  the  basis  of  applying  principles. 
According  to  the  standards  that  we  have  set  up, 
such  exercises  could  not  be  classed  as  projects,  but 
could  very  well  be  brought  under  the  term  "  practi- 
cum,"  meaning  by  this  application  of  principles  with 
the  emphasis  on  the  economic  value  of  the  product. 

Barrows,  Lane,  and  Heald.  —  The  definition  and 
characterization  of  the  term  "  project "  has  been  dis- 
cussed at  some  length  by  H.  P.  Barrows,  C.  H.  Lane, 
and  F.  E.  Heald  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture.  This  formulation  is  evidently  the  cooper- 
ative work  of  the  three  men  : 

"  The  term  '  home  project '  applied  to  instruction  in 
elementary  and  secondary  agriculture  includes  each 
of  the  following  requisites :  (l)  There  must  be  a  plan 
for  work  at  home  covering  a  season  or  a  more  or  less 

1  French,  W.  H.,  Report  of  Agriculture  in  the  High  Schools  of 
Michigan,  1916.  Also  quoted  in  Lane,  C.  H.,  "Aims  and  Methods  of 
Project  Work  in  Secondary  Agriculture,"  School  Science  and  Mathe- 
matics, Vol.  17,  pp.  805-806,  December,  1917. 


DEFINITION   OF  THE   PROJECT  73 

extended  period  of  time ;  (2)  it  must  be  a  part  of  the 
instruction  in  agriculture  of  the  school ;  (3)  there  must 
be  a  problem  more  or  less  new  to  the  pupil ;  (4)  the 
parents  and  pupil  should  agree  with  the  teacher  upon 
the  plan ;  (5)  some  competent  person  must  supervise 
the  home  work ;  (6)  detailed  records  of  time,  method, 
cost,  and  income  must  be  honestly  kept ;  and  (7)  a 
written  report  based  on  the  record  must  be  submitted 
to  the  teacher.  This  report  may  be  in  the  form  of  a 
composition  or  a  booklet."  l 

"  A  distinction  should  be  drawn  between  a  project 
and  a  simple  exercise  used  as  a  practicum  to  illustrate 
some  principle,  or  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  skill  in 
some  operation  of  farm  or  shop.  A  project,  to  be 
worthy  of  the  name  should  involve  skill  in  many  opera- 
tions, and  the  application  of  a  number  of  principles. 
To  accomplish  this  it  should  cover  a  branch  of  farming 
that  will  extend  over  a  comparatively  long  period  of 
time.  The  testing  of  seed  corn  may  be  cited  as  an 
example  of  a  simple  laboratory  exercise  performed  at 
school.  The  stringing  of  seed  corn  would  be  a  suitable 
home  practicum,  the  aim  of  which  would  be  to  acquire 
skill  in  a  useful  operation.  The  growing  of  an  acre  of 
corn  would  involve  both  of  these  operations  and  many 
others,  hence  it  would  be  a  worthy  project."  2 

1  Lane,  C.  H.  and  Heald,  F.  E.  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Bulletin  281,  States  Relations  Service,  p.  1,  Aug.  12,  1915.  Barrows, 
H.  P.  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  346,  States  Re- 
lations Service,  p.  4,  Feb.  21,  1916.  Heald,  F.  E.,  "The  Project 
in  Agricultural  Education,"  General  Science  Quarterly,  Vol.  1,  p.  166, 
March,  1917.  Lane,  C.  H.,  "Aims  and  Methods  of  Project  Work  in 
Secondary  Agriculture,"  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  Vol.  17,  p.  807, 
December,  1917. 

*  Barrows,  H.  P.  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  346, 
States  Relations  Service,  p.  4,  Feb.  21,  1916. 


74          THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

In  explanation  of  the  seven  requisites  of  a  home 
project,  Heald  in  another  article  says : 

(1)  "  The  plan  must  have  an  aim  which  is  in  accord 
with  the  general  scheme  of  work,  in  which  the  pupil 
has  an  interest  at  the  outset  and  in  which  there  is  some 
problem  more  or  less  new.     The  person  who  approves 
the  project  at  the  outset  should  have  some  broader 
view  of  the  applications  and  should  shape  the  general 
plan  accordingly. 

(2)  "  The  project  should  involve  principles  already 
studied  or  which  are  studied  concurrently  with  the 
practice.     The  discoveries  of  others  should  be  found 
out,  either  by  observation  or  by  reference  study,  and 
records  of  these  should  be  compiled.     Problems,  prac- 
ticums,  demonstrations  and  occasional  experiments  may 
be  necessary  as  a  part  of  the  project.     These  in  them- 
selves may  be  within  the  dictionary  definition  of  the 
term  project  but  we  have  already  these  other  terms 
in  the  vocabulary  of  education.     The  exact  line  of 
demarcation  between  a  short  project  and  a  longer  prac- 
ticum  may  as  well  be  left  undecided,  but  the  tendency 
to  give  to  everything  which   may  be  '  projected  '  or 
planned  the  name  project  is  unnecessarily  confusing. 

(3)  "  The  records  and  reports  covering  each  of  the 
steps  or  processes  'with  final   conclusions   or  results 
should  be  preserved.     All  of  these  points  will  apply, 
whether  the  project  is  for  an  individual  or  a  group  ;   at 
school,  at  home,  or  elsewhere  in  the  community.     To 
start  with  a  definite  aim,  to  do  certain  correlated  lines 
of  work  covering  a  fairly  extensive  field  or  period  of 
time,  and  to  bring  together  everything  bearing  on  the 
main  aim  are  essential  points  in  a  project." 

1  Heald,  F.  E.,  "The  'Project'  in  Agricultural  Education,"   General 
Science  Quarterly,  Vol.  1,  pp.  167-168,  March,  1917. 


DEFINITION  OF  THE   PROJECT  75 

This  characterization  of  the  project,  with  the  addi- 
tional explanations,  shows  that  reasoning  is  favored 
over  the  mere  memory  of  information,  for  the  writers 
consider  it  essential  that  some  "  problem  more  or  less 
new  "  be  present,  that  the  natural  setting  be  provided 
for  in  making  the  projects  apply  to  the  farm,  and  that 
conduct  be  modified,  for  the  completed  act  is  assumed. 
The  writers,  however,  do  not  make  the  priority  of  the 
problem  over  the  statement  of  principles  an  essential 
factor  ("  The  project  should  involve  principles  already 
studied  or  which  are  studied  concurrently  with  the 
practice  "),  but  all  agree  that  there  should  be  a  new 
problem  involved  in  the  project. 

In  a  later  paper,  Heald  does  not  place  emphasis  on 
the  project  being  used  to  illustrate  or  involve  principles 
already  studied.  One  essential  of  the  project  is  "  a 
carefully  drawn  plan  covering  a  considerable  exten^ 
of  time,  with  a  definite  aim,  including  some  problems 
new  to  the  pupil  and  outlining  with  sufficient  detail 
the  methods  to  be  employed."  l  Again,  this  statement 
seems  to  show  that  much  emphasis  is  placed  on  the 
development  of  principles  as  needed.  "  As  a  fact,  many 
of  the  lessons  which  the  boy  learns  best  are  the  outcome 
of  emergencies  which  he  faces  in  his  project  and  must 
look  up  at  once  to  save  his  crop."  2 

1  Heald,  F.  E.,  "The  Home  Project  as  a  Phase  of  Vocational  Agri- 
cultural Education,"  p.  9. 
1  Ibid.,  p.  17. 


76  THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

(c)  Definitions  Proposed  by  Teachers  of  Science 

The  project  has  been  developed  and  used  somewhat 
extensively  by  teachers  of  science,  yet  very  few  defini- 
tions have  appeared  and  even  these  probably  could 
better  be  termed  characterizations.  The  most  compre- 
hensive formulation  has  been  given  by  C.  R.  Mann : 

"(1)  A  desire  to  understand  the  meaning  and  use  of 
some  fact,  phenomenon,  or  experience.  This  leads  to 
questions  and  problems.  (2)  A  conviction  that  it  is 
worth  while  and  possible  to  secure  an  understanding 
of  the  thing  in  question.  This  causes  one  to  work 
with  an  impelling  interest.  (3)  The  gathering  from 
experience,  books,  and  experiments  of  the  needed  in- 
formation, and  the  application  of  this  information  to 
answer  the  question  in  hand."  l 

A  few  citations  from  the  writings  of  John  F.  Wood- 
hull  will  give  his  views  of  the  project  method  in  science : 

"  The  purpose  of  science  teaching  in  all .  grades  of 
schools  is  not  chiefly  to  impart  knowledge  of  subject 
matter  but  to  train  persons  in  the  method  of  the 
masters,  which  is  invariably  the  project  method.  This 
is  the  method  used  by  intelligent  men  in  achieving 
their  ends,  in  school  or  out."  2 

"  The  real  way  to  learn  fundamental  principles  is  to 
attack  those  problems  of  which  life  is  full  for  each 

1  Quoted  by  Woodhull,  John  F.,  "  The  Aims  and  Methods  of  Science 
Teaching,"  General  Science  Quarterly,  Vol.  2,  pp.  249-250,  November, 
1917. 

2  Woodhull,  John  F.,  "  The  Aims  and  Methods  of  Science  Teaching," 
General  Science  Quarterly,  Vol.  2,  p.  249,  November,  1917. 


DEFINITION  OF  THE   PROJECT  77 

individual,  not  through  the  preparatory  fallacy  called 
the  scientific  method,  but  by  a  '  forked  road  situation.' 
The  school  should  prepare  pupils  to  walk  alone  by 
attacking  real  problems  as  Archimedes,  Galileo,  Davy, 
Faraday,  Pasteur,  Tyndall,  and  all  the  rest  did.  Most 
of  us  know,  if  we  would  think  back  over  our  experiences, 
that  we  never  really  learn  these  so-called  fundamental 
principles  until  they  come  to  us  as  an  interpretation  of 
some  of  our  life's  problems."  1 

'  The  great  masters  of  science,  Galileo,  Faraday, 
Pasteur,  Darwin,  etc.,  illustrated  in  all  their  lives  and 
work  the  project  method.  The  intelligent  man  illus- 
trates it  in  all  his  work  outside  the  field  of  education. 
High-school  pupils  use  the  project  method  in  all  of 
their  self-directed  work  outside  of  school.  But  when 
the  schoolmaster  undertakes  to  direct  the  pursuit  for 
knowledge,  he  formalizes,  he  systematizes,  he  schema- 
tizes, and  invariably  inverts  the  natural  order  of  learn- 
ing. The  result  is  that  our  young  people  are  getting 
their  real  science  through  various  outside  agencies."  2 

Woodhull  indicates  that  the  project  method  is 
nothing  more  nor  less  than  the  method  of  the  scientist 
adapted  to  children.  In  order  to  get  a  better  notion 
of  Woodhull's  conception  of  the  project  it  is  necessary 
to  determine  just  what  is  the  method  of  the  scientist. 
Morris  Meister  of  Columbia  University  gives  the  fol- 
lowing analysis  of  the  scientist  at  work  which  illustrates 

1  Woodhull,  J.  F.,  "Science  Teaching  by  Projects,"  School  Science 
and  Mathematics,  Vol.  15,  p.  229,  1915. 

*  Woodhull,  J.  F.,  "The  Teaching  of  Science,"  p.  233.  The  Mac- 
millan  Company,  1918. 


78          THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

or  describes  more  specifically  the  concept  which  Wood- 
hull  terms  "  the  method  of  the  Science  Masters  "  : 

"  (l)  That  he  begins  in  a  state  of  perplexity. 

"  (2)  That  he  works  with  an  intense  enthusiasm 
because  this  perplexity  is  the  result  of  a  real,  pressing, 
vital  difficulty. 

"  (3)  Once  the  difficulty  is  clearly  defined  his  en- 
thusiasm carries  him  to  a  solution  by  a  process  which 
is  automatic  but  which  can  be  described  as  : 

"  (a)  A  process  of  rapid  suggestion,  supposition, 
guess,  hypothesis,  or  theory  —  pending  further  evi- 
dence, (b)  '  Reasoning  out '  the  implications  of  each 
suggestion,  (c)  Deliberately  and  cleverly  arranging 
conditions  in  accord  with  the  requirements  of  any  of 
the  suggestions  to  see  what  results  occur  and  to  weed 
out  the  false  suggestions. 

"  The  superiority  of  such  an  analysis  over  one  which 
sets  up  certain  definite  steps  lies  in  its  implications  for 
the  teacher.  The  whole  of  life  can  be  thought  of  as 
a  series  of  problems  or  hurdles,  the  series  progressing 
from  the  simple  needs  of  childhood  to  the  intellectual 
needs  of  the  educated  adult.  This  line  of  growth  can- 
not be  short-circuited,  for  each  step  is  prerequisite  for 
each  succeeding  one.  The  teacher's  task  becomes 
simple  and  yet  difficult ;  simple,  because  he  must 
merely  commence  the  process  by  so  controlling  the 
situation  that  a  need  or  problem  will  arise  for  the  child 
—  the  rest,  within  certain  limits,  are  the  capacities  of 
the  child ;  and  to  properly  gauge  these  and  take  them 
into  account  requires  teaching  ability  of  a  high  order. 

"  The  great  evils  of  the  science  teaching  of  to-day  are 
due  chiefly  to  the  adherence  of  science  teachers  to  a 
false  analysis  of  the  method  of  the  scientists.  The 


DEFINITION   OF  THE   PROJECT  79 

formal  logical  steps  of  Bacon  or  Mill  or  some  of  the 
other  metaphysicians  attack  the  problem  from  the 
wrong  end,  as  far  as  the  educator  is  concerned.  It  is 
Dewey's  analysis  of  thought  which  I  have  attempted 
to  apply  to  the  work  of  the  scientists  that  I  believe  will 
solve  the  problem  of  science  teaching."  l 

Another  statement  by  Woodhull  is  pertinent  to  this 
discussion : 

"  A  project,  or  problem,  differs  from  and  is  superior 
to  a  topic  in  that  (1)  a  project  originates  in  some 
question  and  not  in  such  a  logical  sequence  of  ideas 
as  may  be  found  in  codified  matter.  In  teaching  from 
the  so-called  '  logical '  texts  one  wrongly  attempts  to 
induce  the  pupils  to  accept  topics  as  their  own  projects. 
Logical  organizations  of  such  material  as  functions  in 
life  will  be  the  final  result  of  a  protracted  study  of 
projects.  (2)  The  project  involves  the  active  and 
motivated  participation  of  the  pupil  in  carrying  it 
out.  It  does  not,  therefore,  like  the  topic,  lend  itself 
to  didactic,  formal  treatment  in  which  the  teacher 
does  all  the  thinking  and  the  pupil  passively  absorbs. 
(3)  Projects  furnish  a  basis  for  the  selection  of  facts 
according  to  value  or  significance,  topics  furnish  no 
such  basis  for  selection.  (4)  The  project  seldom  ends 
in  a  complete,  final  or  absolutely  finished  conclusion."  2 

J.  A.  Drushel,  science  teacher  in  Harris  Teachers' 
College,  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  proposes  this  definition : 

1  Meister,  Morris,  "The  Method  of  Scientists,"  School  Science  and 
Mathematics,  Vol.  18,  pp.  743-745,  1918. 

*  Woodhull,  John  F.,  "The  Aims  and  Methods  of  Science  Teaching," 
General  Science  Quarterly,  Vol.  2,  p.  2,  November,  1917. 


80  THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

"  A  project  is  a  concrete  problem  outlined  sufficiently 
fully  and  clearly  to  enable  the  student,  for  whom  it  is 
designed,  to  carry  it  out."  1 

Another  definition  of  a  school  project  has  been 
formulated  by  J.  A.  Randall,  Department  of  Physics, 
Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  New  York : 

"  A  problem  the  solution  of  which  results  in  the 
production  of  some  object,  or  knowledge  of  such  value 
to  the  worker  as  to  make  the  labor  involved  seem  to 
him  worth  while."  2 

The  definitions  proposed  in  the  field  of  science  agree 
in  that  the  project  involves  a  problematic  situation ; 
in  fact,  Woodhull  does  not  differentiate  between  the 
project  and  the  problem,  but  Randall  and  Woodhull 
alone  lay  emphasis  on  carrying  the  act  to  completion. 
Randall  makes  no  provision  for  the  natural  setting  of 
the  problem.  The  situations  outlined  by  Mann  and 
Woodhull  may  be  properly  classed  as  multi-problems,3 
by  Drushel  as  applications,  while  Randall's  definition 
covers  most  of  the  elements  which  have  been  con- 
sidered essential  to  the  project,  with  the  exception 
that  the  natural  setting  for  the  problem  is  not  specifi- 
cally indicated. 

1  Drushel,  J.  A.  Definition  sent  to  writer  by  Supt.  John  W.  Withers, 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  March  23,  1918. 

*  Randall,  J.  A.,  "  Project  Teaching,"  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  p.  1010,  1915. 

*  Multi-problems  will  be  discussed  and  defined  in  ch.  iv. 


DEFINITION   OF  THE   PROJECT  81 

(d)   The  Use  of  the  Project  in  Industrial  Education 

The  use  of  the  project  in  industrial  and  vocational 
education  has  been  developed  by  C.  R.  Allen  and 
defined  as  follows : 

"  In  the  simplest  and  most  general  sense  in  which 
the  term  can  be  used,  a  project  is  a  problem  involving 
the  discharge  of  a  responsibility  on  the  part  of  a  given 
individual  or  group  of  individuals.  It  requires  an 
intelligent  application  of  knowledge  or  an  exercise  of 
skill,  or  both,  in  order  that  something  may  be  ac- 
complished." 1 

This  takes  into  consideration  in  a  general  way  the 
elements  which  our  proposed  definition  considers. 
However,  attention  must  be  called  to  the  fact  that 
there  is  seemingly  undue  emphasis  placed  on  the  ap- 
plication of  knowledge  and  principles  rather  than  on 
the  development  of  principles  as  needed  in  the  prosecu- 
tion of  the  solution.  To  give  undue  emphasis  to  this 
phase  would  mean  that  Allen's  definition  of  project  is 
nothing  more  than  the  description  of  a  practical  appli- 
cation. Allen  in  another  statement,  however,  indicates 
that  his  term  "project "  means  more  than  this. 

"  In  the  field  of  vocational  education  the  meaning  of 
the  term  project  becomes  still  more  specific,  in  that  it 
implies  that  the  '  core  '  of  the  project  lies  in  the  field 
of  the  '  shop  experience.'  The  project  is  built  up 

1  Allen,  C.  R.,  "The  Project  Method  and  the  Combination  of  the 
Project  Method  with  the  Phase  System  of  Trading  and  Promoting." 
Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  Bulletin  75,  p.  46. 


82          THE  PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

around  doing  a  job.  Any  job  assigned  to  a  boy  in  the 
machine  shop  may  be  made  the  center  of  requirements 
which  will  call  upon  him  to  deal  with  '  elements  ' 
representing  the  entire  program  of  that  department. 

"  If,  instead  of  merely  having  him  do  the  job  as  a 
purely  production  problem,  we  ask  him  in  connection 
with  the  job  to  find  out  why  he  is  using  a  certain  kind 
of  steel  on  that  job,  that  is  a  lesson  in  materials  of 
trade.  If  we  ask  him  to  figure  his  cutting  speed,  that 
is  a  problem  in  mathematics.  If  we  ask  him  to  find 
out  how  the  power  is  transmitted  from  the  speed 
pulley  to  the  cutter  spindle,  that  is  a  problem  in 
relatable  mechanics  or  science.  If  we  ask  him  to  find 
out  whether  before  there  were  any  millers  this  particu- 
lar job  would  have  been  done  at  the  bench  with  a  file 
or  with  a  saw,  or  whether  it  could  have  been  done  at 
all,  that  is  a  lesson  in  the  history  of  that  trade.  If 
we  ask  him  to  figure  out  the  cost  of  his  stock,  we  have 
a  related  problem  in  applied  arithmetic.  If  we  ask 
him  to  use  a  time  card,  or  fill  out  a  stock  order,  we  are 
giving  him  a  lesson  in  shop  management.  It  is  pos- 
sible to  organize  the  requirements  around  any  piece 
of  shop  work  in  the  case  of  an  individual  pupil  that 
small  portions  of  any  or  all  of  the  subjects  to  be  in- 
cluded in  his  equipment  will  be  represented  in  that 
pupil's  experience  in  connection  with  that  particular 
job,  and  that  those  necessary  portions  of  all  or  any 
of  these  relatable  or  trade  technical  subjects  will  be 
brought  to  his  attention  at  a  time  when  they  function 
directly  and  immediately  upon  the  work  in  hand. 
When  this  is  done,  we  say  the  boy  is  working  on  a 
project,  and  this  method  of  instruction  is  called  the 
project  method. 

"  In  order  that  projects  may  serve  a  progressively 


DEFINITION  OF  THE   PROJECT  83 

educational  purpose  they  must  be  so  organized  as  con- 
tinually to  present  new  difficulties  and  offer  new  oppor- 
tunities for  achievement.  For  example,  when  the 
'  milling  project '  just  discussed  makes  no  demands 
on  the  boy  for  the  acquisition  of  new  knowledge,  if 
he  already  knew  how  to  take  a  rough  cut  on  a  miller, 
and  could  correctly  solve  the  related  problems  included 
in  the  project,  we  would  still  have  a  project,  but  not 
one  involving  the  acquisition  of  new  knowledge. 

"  The  project  as  used  purely  as  a  device  for  training 
the  pupil  in  selecting  and  applying  to  the  demands  of 
a  particular  job  only  what  he  has  already  acquired, 
while  a  valuable  device,  is  not  the  type  of  project 
discussed  here  since  it  lacks  the  element  of  requiring 
the  pupil  to  determine  intelligently  needs  for  additional 
knowledge  required  to  carry  out  that  particular  proj- 
ect, and  to  secure  such  additional  knowledge  as  a 
prerequisite  to  completing  or  carrying  out  the  project 
in  hand."  l 

From  the  foregoing  quotation  it  becomes  evident 
that  Allen  lays  great  stress  on  the  priority  of  a  problem 
over  the  statement  of  principles.  As  he  states  later : 

"  If,  however,  it  is  desired  to  use  the  project  to 
impart  additional  knowledge  then  it  is  evident  that 
the  project  must  be  so  arranged  that  the  pupil  will 
acquire  his  additional  knowledge  just  at  the  time  when 
he  needs  it  to  carry  out  that  particular  project." 

1  Allen,  C.  R.,  "  The  Project  Method  and  the  Combination  of  the 
Project  Method  with  the  Phase  System  of  Grading  and  Promotion." 
Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  Bulletin  75. 

8  Op.  cit. 


84          THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

The  definition  proposed  and  outlined  by  Allen  is 
very  comprehensive,  in  that  it  includes  review  project 
as  well  as  instruction  project. 

(e)   The  Use  of  the  Project  in  the  Field  of  English 
Instruction 

The  adaptation  of  the  project  idea  to  other  fields 
is  rapidly  receiving  consideration.  In  the  teaching  of 
English  literature  and  composition,  J.  F.  Hosic  has 
made  use  of  the  term.  The  following  gives  in  detail 
his  characterization : 

"  I  understand  by  project  a  complete  unit  of  ex- 
perience. The  essential  aspects  or  elements  of  an 
experience  are,  in  the  simplest  form,  a  situation  and 
the  response  to  it.  This,  however,  will  not  describe 
adequately  what  is  meant  by  the  type  of  experience 
called  complete.  Such  a  unit  includes  the  following 
phases :  situation,  problem,  purpose,  plan,  criticism 
of  the  plan,  execution,  judgment  of  results,  apprecia- 
tion. This  is,  of  course,  not  a  chronological  order 
strictly  speaking,  as  a  feeling  of  appreciation  will 
spring  up  in  anticipation  of  the  outcome,  while  on  the 
other  hand,  purpose  persists  and  plan  is  modified  to 
the  very  end.  Negatively,  the  project  is  not  to  be 
confused  with  mere  problem,  with  motivation,  with 
incidental  learning,  with  correlation,  with  self-activity, 
or  with  the  idea  of  general  method  as  illustrated  by 
the  Herbartian  '  formal  steps.'  To  understand  what 
the  project  method  is  we  have  only  to  go  out  into  life 
and  study  any  case  of  purposeful  living.  Perhaps, 
then,  the  word  purposeful  should  be  added  to  the 


DEFINITION   OF   THE   PROJECT  85 

original  definition  of  a  project  —  a  complete  unit  of 
purposeful  experience.  This  will  distinguish  the  proj- 
ect method  from  ordinary  habitual  reaction,  as  think- 
ing, planning,  criticizing,  etc.,  are  essential.  I  may 
add  that  the  results  to  flow  from  the  project  will  include 
growth  in  initiative,  in  power  to  think,  in  judgment  of 
values,  and  in  appreciation,  as  well  as  in  concentra- 
tion and  power  of  organization,  at  least  within  the 
range  of  specific  suggestions  in  which  the  experience 
functions.  So  far  as  these  results  are  general  that 
result  will  be  secured  by  observing  the  laws  which 
govern  the  conditions  of  transfer."  1 

This  characterization  provides  for  reasoning  as 
against  the  memory  of  information,  for  in  the  unit  of 
learning  he  includes  situation,  purpose,  plan,  criti- 
cism of  the  plan,  execution  of  the  plan,  judgment  of 
results,  and  appreciation.  In  carrying  out  this  unit  new 
situations  would  arise  which  would  demand  reasoning. 
Since  the  unit  of  experience  provides  for  execution,  it 
contemplates  carrying  the  act  to  completion.  In  an- 
other summary,  the  author  indicates  that  the  project 
is  "an  organization  of  school  life  in  accordance  with 
life  in  the  home  and  community,"  hence  a  natural 
setting  for  the  problem  is  provided.  In  comparing 
the  project  with  a  purposeful  activity  in  life  he  seems 
to  favor  the  priority  of  the  problem  over  the  state- 
ment of  principles,  although  this  is  not  specifically 
stated. 

1  Hosic,  J.  F.    Statement  sent  to  writer  in  letter,  March  20, 1918. 


86           THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

(f)   Use  of  the  Project  in  Elementary  School  Instruction 

The  adaptation  and  use  of  the  project  in  the  pri- 
mary and  elementary  grades  is  becoming  an  increasingly 
important  subject  of  discussion.  Effort  is  being  made 
by  educational  administrators,  supervisors,  and  teachers 
to  develop  a  curriculum  whereby  provision  will  be  made 
for  the  pupils  to  continue  their  normal  activities  in 
school.  The  project  idea  as  defined  and  illustrated 
seems  to  meet  this  need. 

One  of  the  most  comprehensive  and  interesting  books 
showing  the  use  of  the  project  in  elementary  grade 
work  has  been  written  by  Miss  Krackowizer.1  The 
purpose  of  the  book  as  stated  by  the  author  is  : 

"  To  break  down  the  artificial  barrier  between  first 
grade  and  kindergarten;  to  do  away  with  much  of 
the  formalism  and  mechanism  of  the  early  grades ;  to 
have  the  child  continue  in  as  normal  a  way  as  possible 
those  life  activities  in  which  he  is  engaged  outside  of 
school ;  to  do  this  in  a  manner  which  will  best  further 
his  adjustment  to  new  activities  in  which  he  takes 
part ;  to  make  the  child  increasingly  intelligent,  and 
much  more  active  in  his  response  to  his  environ- 
ment." 2 

"  Any  '  purposeful  activity  '  determined  upon  and 
carried  to  a  successful  conclusion  becomes  a  project." 

This  definition  provides  for  the  act  being  carried  to 
completion.  In  fact,  the  completed  act  is  an  essential 

1  Krackowizer,  Alice  M.,  "Projects  in  the  Primary  Grades."    J.  B. 
Lippincott,  Philadelphia,  1919. 
1  Op.  cit.,  p.  7. 


DEFINITION  OF  THE  PROJECT  87 

element  of  the  definition.  Although  the  natural  set- 
ting is  not  clearly  provided  for  in  the  definition,  never- 
theless the  illustrations  and  descriptions  which  the 
author  gives  leave  no  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the  reader 
that  the  natural  setting  is  an  essential  factor  in  the 
definition.  These  citations  are  pertinent. 

"  Projects  of  all  kinds,  involving  play,  social  ex- 
perience, nature  experience,  constructive  activities,  are 
part  of  the  child's  daily  life,  long  before  he  enters 
school ;  they  should  continue  as  parts  of  his  daily  life 
under  normal  conditions  while  he  is  in  school."  l 

"  The  plea  is  merely  for  a  unified  life  at  school, 
where  each  activity  shall  take  its  legitimate  place,  with 
changing  emphasis  on  the  various  elements,  according 
to  the  greatest  need  at  any  given  time.  Social  and 
nature  experience,  play,  constructive  activity,  litera- 
ture, reading,  writing,  and  the  rest  must  form  the 
ingredients  of  each  daily,  weekly,  monthly  program. 
It  is  the  teacher's  task  so  to  select  and  adjust  condi- 
tions as  properly  to  balance  the  ingredients  so  they  will 
mutually  help  one  another.  This  means  that  condi- 
tions will  confront  the  children  in  the  most  *  true-to- 
fashion,'  and  will  be  met  by  them  as  a  life  to  be  lived, 
rather  than  as  a  task  to  be  performed  because  arbitrarily 
imposed."  * 

Not  only  does  Miss  Krackowizer  make  provision  for 
the  act  but  also  for  the  problematic  act : 

"  All  .  .  .  projects  include  the  problem  type  in  so 
far  as  they  are  not  merely  unconscious  responses.  The 

1  Krackowizer,  Alice  M.,  "  Projects  in  the  Primary  Grades,"  p.  9. 
1  Op.  tit.,  pp.  8-10. 


88  THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

process  of  carrying  out  projects  .  .  .  includes  thoughts, 
suggestions,  and  activities  rejected  as  well  as  those 
finally  selected  as  pertinent."  1 


The  teacher  who  plans  to  utilize  the  project  as  a 
method  of  teaching  and  a  method  of  curriculum 
organization  will  find  this  statement  of  Miss  Kracko- 
wizer  helpful.  It  will  aid  the  teacher  in  understanding 
and  interpreting  the  project  idea  and  applying  the 
principles  to  daily  schoolroom  practice, 

"  if  he  will  look  for  illustrations  referring  to  '  purposeful 
activity  '  of  the  children,  and  to  the  working  back  and 
forth  in  helping  fashion  of  the  various  elements  of  the 
school  curriculum.  Such  cross  references  occur  in : 
The  caring  for  pets,  which  involves  play  and  labor; 
the  dramatization  of  literary  gems,  the  representative 
play  in  connection  with  social  and  nature  experience ; 
the  constructive  activities  carried  on  in  response  to 
social  demands ;  the  reading,  writing,  and  number 
done  as  the  result  of  living  social  lives."  2 

V.   SUMMARY 

This  chapter  has  shown  that  the  types  of  teaching 
which  have  been  analyzed  and  discussed  in  Chapters 
I  and  II  are,  without  modification  of  meaning,  inade- 
quate to  take  care  of  the  situations  designated  as 
projects. 

The  term  "  project  "  was  first  used  by  the  United 

1  Krackowizer,  Alice  M.,  "Projects  in  the  Primary  Grades,"  p.  17. 
1  Op.  tit.,  p.  11. 


DEFINITION  OF  THE   PROJECT  89 

States  Department  of  Agriculture  as  an  outlined  plan 
for  carrying  on  a  piece  of  cooperative  work.  The 
designation  "  home  project"  was  used  in  1908  in  con- 
nection with  agriculture  in  the  secondary  schools  by 
Stimson  and  others. 

The  definition  of  the  project  which  is  proposed  is 
the  following : 

A  project  is  a  problematic  act  carried  to  completion  in 
its  natural  setting. 

This  definition  provides  for  an  act  carried  to  com- 
pletion as  over  against  the  passive  absorption  of  in- 
formation, and  for  the  development  of  the  problematic 
situation  demanding  reasoning  rather  than  merely  the 
memorizing  of  information.  By  emphasizing  the  prob- 
lematic aspect  it  implies  the  priority  of  the  problem 
over  the  statement  of  the  principles  and  it  makes  pro- 
vision for  the  natural  setting  of  problems  as  over 
tgainst  an  artificial  setting. 

An  analysis  of  the  definitions  of  projects  by  teachers 
of  general  educational  theory,  agriculture,  science, 
industrial  education,  and  English  in  primary  and  ele- 
mentary grades,  shows  wide  variations  in  meaning. 
Most  of  the  definitions  make  provision  for  the  problem- 
atic act  and  few  for  carrying  the  act  to  completion. 
Although  the  natural  setting  for  the  problems  is 
frequently  implied,  it  is  seldom  specially  stated  or 
discussed. 

The  question  that  must  be  answered  in  determining 
whether  the  setting  is  artificial  or  natural  is  this :  Is 


90  THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

the  problem,  which  is  demanding  solution,  different, 
due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  undertaken  in  school,  from 
what  i|  would  be  were  it  to  arise  in  life  outside  the 
school?  In  other  words  is  the  problem  presented  for 
solution  by  schoolroom  practice  essentially  different 
from  that  found  in  life  outside  the  school?  If  the 
solution  is  carried  on  in  the  same  way  in  school  then 
the  problem  has  a  "  natural  setting  "  even  though  it  is 
being  solved  in  school. 

The  provision  for  the  natural  setting  of  the  teaching 
situation  is  the  distinct  contribution  of  the  project  method. 
Without  the  natural  setting  there  is  no  project. 


CHAPTER  IV 
PROBLEMS  AND  PROJECTS 

I.   THE  NEED  FOR  MAKING  A  DISTINCTION  BETWEEN 
PROJECT  AND  PROBLEM 

A  CRITICAL  study  of  the  literature  on  the  project 
method,  as  applied  particularly  to  the  teaching  of  the 
arts  and  sciences,  shows  that  no  clear-out  distinction 
has  as  yet  been  made  between  the  project  and  the 
problem  method  of  teaching.  Woodhull,  for  instance, 
in  a  recent  article  discussing  the  methods  of  science 
teaching  makes  none,  and,  indeed,  it  would  be  quite 
fair  to  interpret  him  as  using  the  terms  synonymously, 
for  in  comparing  the  project  or  problem  with  the  topic 
it  is  clear  that  he  used  the  terms  interchangeably. 
Again  in  the  same  article  he  states : 

"  The  present  need  of  the  schools  is  for  a  large  col- 
lection of  sample  projects,  or  problems  which  may  be 
used  in  showing  teachers  in  a  given  community  how 
to  devise  and  utilize  projects  adapted  to  different  grade 
pupils  in  their  own  environment."  l 

1  Woodhull,  John  F.,  "The  Aims  and  Methods  of  Science  Teaching." 
General  Science  Quarterly,  Vol.  2,  p.  250,  November,  1917. 

91 


92          THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

In  continuing  the  discussion,  Woodhull  quotes  the 
characterization  of  the  project  made  by  C.  R.  Mann, 
which,  as  stated  before,  may  be  considered  to  be  a 
multi-problem. 

There  is  a  tendency,  too,  on  the  part  of  some  writers, 
to  use  an  expression  which  will  not  make  it  necessary 
to  separate  clearly  and  distinctly  the  terms  "  project  " 
and  "  problem."  The  expression  which  is  used  is  the 
"  problem-project  method  of  instruction." 

Hosic  uses  the  term  "  problem-project  "  to  describe 
certain  teaching  situations  which  for  the  present  writer 
would  constitute  projects.  Hosic  would  consider  the 
term  "  project  "  adequate  if  it  were  not  so  closely 
identified  with  certain  shop  and  laboratory  practices. 
The  term  "problem  "  he  believes  is  inadequate  because  it 
suggests  a  purely  intellectual  process.  The  "  problem- 
project  "  appears  to  be  more  satisfactory  because  this 
compounded  term  emphasizes  both  thinking  and  doing, 
and  points  to  an  objective  result. 

The  writer  is  in  sympathy  with  Hosic's  effort  to 
include  in  the  concept  "project "  the  idea  of  a  problem. 
It  is  rather  unfortunate,  however,  that  this  was  done 
by  the  use  of  the  term  "  problem-project  "  because  of 
the  usual  confusion  in  the  use  of  these  two  terms. 
Hosic  does  not  confuse  the  meanings ;  neither  does  he 
use  them  synonymously.  The  teaching  situation  which 
he  describes  as  the  problem-project  is  designated  as  the 
project  by  the  writer.  Hosic's  use  of  the  term  "  prob- 
lem" is  identical  with  the  writer's,  to  be  described  later. 


PROBLEMS  AND  PROJECTS  93 

In  a  recent  article  on  the  problem  and  project 
method,  H.  G.  Lull  makes  no  effort  to  present  a  clear- 
cut  distinction  between  these  two  terms.  He  makes 
the  point,  however,  that  Kilpatrick  "  holds  that 
problem  instruction  is  a  special  case  of  project  instruc- 
tion." The  following  statement  by  Lull  indicates  that 
he  recognizes  some  difference  in  meaning  between  the 
two  concepts. 

"  Alternative  suggestions  arise  in  the  case  of  the  prob- 
lem as  to  whether  one  means  or  another  shall  be  chosen 
to  relieve  a  difficulty  or  to  reach  a  definite  end.  Or  it 
may  be  that  the  choice  of  an  end  is  in  doubt.  In 
either  case,  there  are  perplexing  difficulties,  and  before 
a  choice  can  be  safely  made,  there  must  be  further 
investigation.  Finally,  at  least  a  tentative  choice  is 
made  of  a  certain  line  of  procedure  or  of  a  certain  end 
to  work  for,  and  the  work  proceeds  on  the  basis  of  this 
choice  until  it  is  shown  to  be  leading  the  wrong  way. 
Again,  the  problem  is  predominately  a  matter  of  ex- 
planation or  interpretation  while  the  project  is  in  the 
main  a  matter  of  planning  to  do  something  and  doing 
it."  l 

Since  there  seems  to  be  no  sharply  drawn  distinction 
between  the  project  and  the  problem  as  interpreted  by 
some  of  the  leading  advocates  and  writers  on  the 
project  method,  it  will  be  necessary,  for  the  sake  of 
clarity,  to  set  up  definitions  which  may  make  it  possible 
to  distinguish  these  two  terms. 

1  Lull,  Herbert  G.,  "Project-Problem  Instruction,"  School  and  Home 
Education,  Vol.  38,  p.  79,  1918. 


94          THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

II.   DEFINITIONS  OF  PROBLEM  AND  PROJECT 

The  definition  of  the  problem  as  proposed  by  John 
Dewey  is  quite  adequate : 

"  Every  conscious  situation  involving  reflection  pre- 
sents a  distinction  between  certain  given  conditions 
and  something  to  be  done  with  them ;  the  possibility 
of  a  change.  This  contrast  and  connection  of  the 
given  and  the  possible  confers  a  certain  problematic, 
uncertain  aspect  upon  those  situations  that  evoke 
thought.  There  is  an  element,  which  may  be  slight 
or  which  may  be  intense,  of  perplexity,  of  difficulty, 
of  confusion.  The  need  of  clearing  up  confusion,  of 
straightening  out  an  ambiguity,  of  overcoming  an 
obstacle,  of  covering  the  gap  between  things  as  they 
are  and  as  they  may  be  when  transformed,  is  in  germ, 
a  problem."  l 

The  definition  of  the  project  which  the  writer  pro- 
posed and  discussed  on  pages  43-54  may  be  con- 
sidered again  here  in  connection  with  its  relation  to 
the  problem.  The  project  as  defined  is  a  problematic 
act  carried  to  completion  in  its  natural  setting. 

The  term  "  problem  "  is  largely  "  intellectualistic  in  its 
connotation  "  and  if  it  were  used  exclusively  it  would 
have  a  tendency  "  to  overemphasize  the  intellectual- 
istic aspect  of  school  work."  The  project,  on  the 
other  hand,  lays  emphasis  not  only  on  the  problematic 
situation  but  also  on  the  act  and  on  the  possibility  of 

1  Dewey,  John,  "  Problem."     Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Education. 
1  Kilpatrick,  W.  H.,  "  How  Shall  We  View  Method  ?  "     (Unpublished 
article.) 


PROBLEMS  AND  PROJECTS  95 

carrying  it  to  completion.  The  project  makes  pro- 
vision for  the  natural  setting  of  the  teaching  unit. 
Without  the  natural  setting  there  is  no  project.  The 
problem  setting  may  be  artificial,  that  is,  it  may  not 
approximate  a  life  situation.  The  project  is  a  normal 
life  situation,  or  the  problem  in  its  natural,  setting. 
The  foregoing  view  is  indicated  by  Kilpatrick  in  the 
following  statement. 

"It  is  at  once  evident  that  every  problem  which  is 
accepted  for  prosecution  in  the  sense  that  its  solution 
is  willed  ex  vi  termini  is  a  project.  In  this  sense  every 
real  problem  is  a  project,  but  every  project  is  not  a 
problem ;  the  problem  method  accordingly  becomes 
a  special  case  —  a  most  important  one,  to  be  sure  —  of 
the  project."  l 

This  same  view  of  the  project  and  problem  is  shared 
by  Miss  Krackowizer : 

"  Children's  lives  are  full  of  activity.  They  are 
constantly  carrying  out  projects  and  solving  problems 
of  their  own.  In  the  process  of  living  they  learn  to 
think,  because  of  the  fact  that  in  their  activity  they 
are  most  often  carrying  out  a  definite  purpose ;  that 
in  order  to  do  so  they  must  weigh  and  judge  among 
ideas  and  material  details  and  select  from  among  these 
the  ones  most  pertinent  to  the  fulfillment  of  their 
immediate  end ;  that  in  working  out  their  definite 
purpose,  they  meet  difficulties  which  need  to  be  over- 
come before  the  desired  end  can  be  obtained. 

1  Kilpatrick,  W.  H.,  "  How  Shall  We  View  Method?"  (Unpublished 
article.) 


96          THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

"  Since  this  is  the  method  of  procedure  of  a  normal 
child  or  of  any  normal  human  being  when  under  no 
constraint,  the  school  should  adopt  it.  '  Purposeful 
activity '  on  the  part  of  the  children  then  becomes  the 
aim  of  the  school.  The  teacher's  part  is  to  guide 
towards  such  '  purposeful  activities '  as  will  prove  of 
greatest  benefit  to  the  children,  choosing  among  those 
directly  available  for  first-hand  experience."  1 

The  following  definition  of  the  project  is  proposed 
by  Miss  Krackowizer  :  "  Any  '  purposeful  activity  ' 
determined  upon  and  carried  to  a  successful  conclusion 
becomes  a  project."  She  defines  the  problem  as  the 
situation  which  demands  the  "  exercise  of  choice." 

The  writer  uses  the  expression  "  natural  setting  for 
the  problem  "  in  the  same  sense  that  Kilpatrick  uses 
"  real  problem."  In  the  writer's  definition  of  project 
the  term  is  made  to  include  the  problem  stated  as  the 
problematic  act.  It  is  quite  clear,  then,  that  the 
project  must  include  a  problem. 

The  apparent  difficulty  in  defining  the  fields  of  the 
project  and  problem  is  just  what  might  be  expected 
when  the  less  inclusive  term,  "  problem,"  covers  a 
large  part  of  the  field  taken  by  the  more  inclusive 
term,  "  project."  The  problem  does  not  make  any 
provision  for  the  natural  setting  of  the  teaching  situa- 
tion, while  the  project  does.  To  make  a  sharper  dis- 
tinction, we  may  state  that  the  project  differs  from  the 

1  Krackowizer,  Alice  M.,  "Projects  in  the  Primary  Grades,"  pp.  15- 
16.  Lippincott,  Philadelphia. 


PROBLEMS  AND  PROJECTS  97 

problem,  in  that  it  involves  action  in  its  natural  setting. 
The  project  carries  with  it  the  implication  of  doing,  the 
problem  suggests  primarily  an  intellectual  process. 

The  distinction  between  problems  and  projects  is 
well  stated  by  Miss  Krackowizer : 

'  The  progress  of  carrying  out  projects  and  problems 
includes  thoughts,  suggestions  and  activities  rejected 
as  well  as  those  finally  selected  as  pertinent.  If  no 
steps  are  taken  toward  the  attainment  of  a  definite 
purpose,  the  mental  problem  may  remain  in  the  child's 
mind,  but  there  is  no  solution  of  it  and  there  is  no 
project  involved."  1 

III.  TYPES  OF  PROBLEMS  AND  PROJECTS 

(a)  The  Manual  Problem  and  the  Manual 
Project 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  problem 
is  not  necessarily  confined  to  the  intellectual  process. 
It  is  quite  possible  to  have  problems  involving  manipu- 
lative skill,  even  physical  activity,  and  yet  these  may 
not  be  considered  projects.  The  following  example 
will  illustrate.  In  introducing  the  subject  of  baking 
powder  in  a  chemistry  class,  the  teacher  had  the 
students  make  tests  to  determine  the  amount  of  carbon 
dioxide  given  off  by  equal  amounts  of  the  different 
brands  of  baking  powder.  The  whole  lesson  proved 

1  Krackowizer,  Alice  M.,  "  Projects  in  the  Primary  Grades,"  pp.  16- 
17.  Lippincott,  Philadelphia. 


98  THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

interesting  and  the  results  were  probably  better  than 
those  of  the  average  laboratory  experiment.  The 
students  carried  out  their  problems  and  later  purchased 
different  brands  to  repeat  the  experiment.  But  while 
this  exercise  may  have  been  effective,  it  was  a  problem 
(we  could  well  term  it  a  manual  problem)  and  not  a 
project,  since  the  setting  was  artificial. 

One  of  the  boys,  however,  suggested  that  it  might  be 
interesting  to  determine  which  brands  were  economical. 
Several  of  the  boys  and  girls  then  tested  the  baking 
powder  used  at  home  and  compared  results  with  those 
obtained  in  the  experiment.  They  then  reported  to 
their  mothers  the  efficiency  of  the  different  powders 
and  this  resulted,  in  some  cases,  in  a  change  by  the 
mother  in  her  purchase.  This  latter  exercise  is  a 
project,  for  it  arose  in  the  natural  setting,  i.e.,  the 
desire  to  help  or  give  advice  to  the  mother,  and  the 
act  was  carried  to  completion  in  its  natural  setting. 
This  may  be  termed  a  manual  project. 

The  manual  projects  are  common  in  the  fields  of 
general  science,  agriculture,  home  economics,  and 
manual  training. 

(b)   The  Intellectual  Problem  and  the  Intellectual  Project 

Again,  it  is  not  necessary  that  there  be  physical 
activity  in  the  project,  that  is  manual  activity.  While 
it  is  true  that  physical  activity  is  usually  considered 
a  part  of  the  project,  yet  mental  acts  may  constitute 
"  activity."  In  a  course  in  the  "  History  of  Western 


PROBLEMS  AND   PROJECTS  99 

Europe  "  the  teacher  suggested  that  the  events  of  the 
Great  War  should  be  followed.  One  student  noted  in 
his  reading  the  frequent  references  to  the  proposed 
reestablishment  of  Poland  as  an  independent  nation. 
He  asked  the  teacher,  "  Why  should  this  particular 
country  be  set  up  ?  "  The  teacher  replied  that  this 
would  be  a  good  problem  for  him  to  solve.  As  a  result 
he  read  widely,  looked  up  references,  and  was  able 
to  give  an  accurate  account  of  the  three  divisions 
of  Poland. 

This  problem  arose  in  its  natural  setting  —  the  situ- 
ation was  not  essentially  different  because  it  was 
solved  in  school ;  it  was  a  problematic  act  carried  to 
completion  in  its  natural  setting.  This  may  be  termed 
an  intellectual  project. 

(c)  Illustrations 

Four  types  of  projects  and  problems  have  been 
mentioned,  the  manual  problem,  the  intellectual  prob- 
lem, the  manual  project,  and  the  intellectual  project. 
An  illustration  of  each  of  these  types  will  be  made  from 
the  same  field  of  subject  matter  in  order  to  show  clearly 
their  differences. 

The  subject  matter  may  be  centered  around  the 
study  of  the  electric  bell.  If  the  topic  were  begun  by 
making  an  assignment  in  the  text,  the  student  being 
required  to  master  the  lesson  as  assigned  without  regard 
to  the  natural  setting  for  the  problem,  it  would  be  an 
intellectual  problem.  If  he  were  to  perform  the  experi- 


100        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

ments  as  outlined  and  directed  in  the  physics  manual, 
even  doing  some  construction  work,  this  exercise  would 
be  classed  as  a  manual  problem.  These  are  "  prob- 
lems "  because  difficulties  arise  and  are  solved.  They 
are  not  "  projects  "  because  the  "  natural  setting  "  is 
lacking. 

The  student  might  become  interested  in  electric 
bells,  burglar  alarms,  and  the  like,  and  take  up  the 
subject  seriously,  reading  widely  in  order  to  familiarize 
himself  with  the  details  of  the  bell.  He  might  do  this 
in  the  same  way  and  for  the  same  purpose  as  one  would 
who  should  consider  such  a  problem  outside  the  school. 
The  teacher  might  set  the  stage  for  such  purposeful 
activities.  This  method  of  approach  illustrates  the 
intellectual  project.  If  this  exercise  were  carried  to  the 
point  where  a  bell  system  or  a  burglar  alarm  system 
was  installed,  perhaps  in  the  home,  the  total  activity 
would  represent  the  manual  project.  These  are  proj- 
ects because  difficulties  arise  and  are  solved  in  a 
natural  setting ;  that  is,  the  situation  is  not  essentially 
different  from  a  "  life  situation." 

The  two  types  of  projects  are  recognized  by  Miss 
Krackowizer  in  the  following  quotation : 

"  There  are  various  types  of  projects.  One  of  these 
types  involves  mental  processes  alone,  without  manipu- 
lation of  material  and  without  the  necessity  of  outward 
expression ;  this  is  the  problem  type.  It  goes  without 
saying  that,  while  this  type  may  exist  by  itself,  it  is 
not  likely  to  do  so  in  the  child's  world.  On  the  other 


PROBLEMS  AND   PROJECTS  101 

hand,  all  other  types  of  projects  include  the  problem 
type  in  so  far  as  they  are  not  merely  unconscious 
responses."  l 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  manual  problem 
and  the  intellectual  project  are  the  two  concepts  which 
may  cause  confusion  in  making  the  distinction  between 
projects  and  problems.  The  first  step  is  to  determine 
whether  the  natural  setting  for  the  problem  exists. 
If  so,  the  teaching  situation  is  a  project. 

What  is  frequently  done  in  school  is  to  take  problems 
away  from  their  setting  in  projects,  with  the  resulting 
tendency  to  teach  them  in  isolated  groups  with  little 
thought  of  their  function.  To  avoid  this  isolation  of 
elements,  a  larger  unit  of  work,  the  project,  is  under- 
taken on  a  functional  basis  and  carried  over  into 
activity. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  both  problems  and 
projects  vary  widely  in  the  degrees  of  complexity.  The 
boy  who  oils  a  bearing  or  the  boy  who  determines  the 
efficiency  of  the  dairy  herd  is,  in  each  case,  carrying 
out  a  project,  but  the  complexity  of  the  latter  is  far 
greater  than  that  of  the  former.  Again  the  problems 
vary  in  complexity.  For  instance,  the  finding  of  the 
product  of  3  X  6  is  less  complex  than  the  determination 
of  the  relative  superiority  of  the  harbors  of  New  York 
and  San  Francisco. 

1  Krackowizer,  Alice  M.,  "Projects  in  the  Primary  Grades,"  p.  16. 


102        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

IV.   CLASSIFICATION  OF  PROBLEMS  AND  PROJECTS 
BASED  UPON  DEGREE  OF  COMPLEXITY 

Since  there  is  such  a  wide  variation  in  the  complexity 
of  the  problems  and  the  projects  and  since  there  are 
so  many  situations  which  these  concepts  cover,  the 
following  subdivisions  indicating  this  degree  of  com- 
plexity are  suggested  : 

Problems  may  be  classified  as  (a)  Simple  problems 
and  (b)  Multi-problems.  Projects  may  be  classified  as 
(c)  Simple,  and  (d)  Complex. 

(l)  Simple  Problems  and  Illustrations 

The  simple  problem  has  its  place  in  school.  There 
are  many  intellectual  difficulties  that  are  not  complex 
and  yet  need  to  be  solved.  The  teacher  may  ask  such 
questions  as,  "  Where  is  Louisiana  ?  What  city  is  its 
capital?  Its  resources?  Where  is  Alabama?  Its 
capital?  "  etc.  The  teacher  may  ask  a  number  of 
simple  questions  concerning  the  states  in  the  Southern 
group,  and  since  they  are  in  a  sense  difficulties  proposed 
for  solution,  they  may  be  considered  as  simple  problems. 

But,  instead  of  proposing  for  solution  a  number  of 
these  simpler  questions,  the  teacher  may  propose  one 
large  problem,  which  we  call  the  multi-problem,  and 
which  may  embrace  all  these  simple  problems.  Instead 
of  asking  many  detailed  questions  about  the  New 
England  States  and  the  Southern  States  a  "  multi- 
problem  "  might  be  suggested  such  as  the  following : 


PROBLEMS  AND   PROJECTS  103 

Compare  the  two  groups  of  states  in  respect  to  size, 
location,  surface,  population,  industries,  harbors,  agri- 
cultural activities,  and  labor.  Or  again,  —  Is  the 
Southern  group  sufficiently  large  to  make  a  strong 
nation  ?  Is  the  New  England  group  ? 

(2)  Multi-problems  and  Illustrations 

There  are  many  simple  problems  that  could  be  pro- 
posed for  solution  in  the  suggested  study  of  the  two 
groups  of  states.  But  in  the  multi-problem  attack, 
some  one  complex  problem  which  will  involve  most  of 
the  materials  and  facts  covered  by  the  simple  problem 
is  selected. 

For  instance,  a  superintendent  proposed  in  the 
geography  classes  which  were  studying  New  England 
this  question :  "  Might  New  England  have  developed 
into  a  powerful,  independent  nation?  "  Several  prob- 
lems arose  and  all  the  facts  usually  taken  up  by  the 
topical  method  were  utilized.  The  first  minor  problem 
was  this  :  "Is  New  England  large  enough  ?  "  A  pupil 
turned  to  the  appendix  of  the  geography,  found  the 
area  of  the  United  States,  of  his  native  state,  and  of 
New  England,  and  decided  in  the  negative,  —  New 
England  was  too  small. 

"  But  how  does  it  compare  in  size  with  some  great 
European  nations?  "  was  the  question  proposed  by 
the  teacher. 

The  children  named  several  important  European 
countries,  and  finally  selected  for  study  the  British 
Isles  and  particularly  England.  Comparisons  of  area 
were  made. 


104        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

The  teacher  then  put  the  problem  :  "As  far  as  area 
is  concerned,  might  New  England  have  been  a  nation  ? 
Is  New  England  large  enough  to  become  a  nation?  " 
The  class  then  reversed  itself  and  decided  for  the 
affirmative. 

Then  the  question  was  put :  "  Greenland  is  twelve 
times  the  size  of  New  England.  Is  it  a  great  nation?  " 
The  pupils  decided  that  size  was  not  all-important  and 
that  they  must  know  whether  or  not  the  people  could 
raise  what  they  needed  to  eat,  and  to  know  this  they 
must  get  facts  about  soil,  seasons,  surface,  and  climate. 

A  study  of  soils  was  made  and  a  study  of  the  other 
items  of  seasons,  surface,  and  climate  followed.  Before 
the  books  were  opened,  the  children  were  always  asked 
to  hazard  opinions  about  the  probable  nature  of  soils, 
seasons,  etc.  (This  took  much  time  because  of  com- 
parisons made  with  their  native  state.)  They  decided 
that  New  England  could  not  feed  itself,  and  also,  after 
protracted  study,  that  New  England  could  not  clothe 
itself.  It,  therefore,  could  not  become  a  great  nation  — 
so  the  pupils  reasoned. 

"But  can  England  feed  and  clothe  itself?"  The 
study  revealed  that  it  could  not.  "  But  since  she  is 
a  great  nation,  how  is  this  overcome?  "  By  trade. 

"  What  could  New  England  trade  (from  your  knowl- 
edge of  New  England  already  learned)  ?  "  Products  of 
fisheries,  mines,  forests,  etc. 

"  Does  New  England  have  more  fish  than  it  needs 
for  its  own  use?  "  A  study  of  fisheries  followed  and 
the  question  was  answered  affirmatively.  So,  also,  was 
carried  on  a  careful  study  of  mining,  lumber-manufac- 
turing, etc.  In  each  case  the  children  formed  their 
judgment  and  verified  their  conclusions.1 

Charters,  W.  W.,  "Systematic  Topics,  Multi-problems  and  Proj- 
ects." Proceedings  Illinois  State  Teachers  Association,  1917. 


PROBLEMS  AND  PROJECTS  105 

A  Multi-problem  in  Art 

Another  multi-problem,  one  in  the  field  of  art,  may 
be  cited.  It  was  outlined  and  carried  out  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades  in  Grand  Rapids  under  the 
supervision  of  Miss  Charlotte  Calkins.  The  topic  of 
the  two  years'  work  was  called  "  The  House  Beautiful." 

The  problem  took  up  all  phases  of  making  the  house 
beautiful,  —  the  selection  of  the  lot,  making  plans  of 
the  house,  involving  the  principles  of  design,  and  finally 
the  study  and  selection  of  furnishings. 

In  the  two  years  during  which  this  study  was  carried 
on  the  pupils  were  brought  in  contact  with  most  of  the 
problems  that  arise  in  making  the  house  beautiful. 

It  may  be  said,  parenthetically,  that  for  most  of  the 
pupils  this  was  a  school  problem,  but  to  some  of  the 
pupils  it  became  a  project.  One  such  project  was 
called  to  the  attention  of  the  writer.  A  girl's  mother 
was  planning  to  redecorate  and  refurnish  the  house. 
The  girl,  aided  by  the  supervisor,  took  charge  of  the 
undertaking,  and,  in  carrying  the  task  to  completion, 
developed  principles  as  she  needed  them.  This  is,  of 
course,  splendid  teaching,  for  it  applies  principles  of 
art  in  a  very  concrete,  interesting,  and  almost  spec- 
tacular manner.  The  work  as  carried  on  by  Miss 
Calkins  may  be  classed  as  a  multi-problem.  Instead 
of  asking  the  pupils  to  solve  many  detailed  and  simple 
problems  of  art,  the  large  multi-problem,  "  The  House 
Beautiful,"  was  suggested.  There  were  many  simple 


106        THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

problems  and  projects  involved  in  this  one  large  multi- 
problem.  It  is  classed  as  a  problem  because  it  was 
not  in  most  cases  carried  to  completion  in  its  natural 
setting. 

A  Multi-problem  in  Arithmetic 

Another  interesting  multi-problem  in  the  field  of 
arithmetic  is  reported  by  Clark  as  an  illustration  of 
the  project  or  problem-project.  The  problem  was  the 
mathematics  and  business  practice  involved  in  buying  a 
lot  and  building  a  house.  Such  subjects  as  legal  de- 
scriptions of  real  estate,  taxes,  building  costs  of  differ- 
ent materials,  borrowing  money,  mortgages,  insurance, 
were  studied  in  connection  with  the  many  mathematical 
problems.  This  is  an  interesting  method  of  approach 
but  should  not  be  called  a  project  or  a  problem-project 
because  the  setting  is  not  natural,  there  is  an  artifi- 
ciality about  it.  This  is  a  valuable  exercise  and  should 
be  given  wide  publicity.  For  the  sake  of  clearness, 
however,  it  should  not  go  under  the  name  of  project.1 

A  Multi-problem  in  Geography 

A  significant  multi-problem  in  geography  was  car- 
ried on  by  Miss  Williams  in  an  eighth  grade  at  the 
Kansas  State  Normal  School.  The  problem  was  "  To 
show  why  the  trade  of  New  York  is  greater  than  that 
of  San  Francisco."  The  problem  was  investigated  by 

1  Clark,  J.  R.,  "  The  Problem-Project  in  Arithmetic,"  Chicago  Schools 
Journal,  Vol.  1,  pp.  15,  16,  1918. 


PROBLEMS  AND  PROJECTS  107 

all  the  pupils,  each  preparing  an  outline  and  suggesting 
methods  of  procedure.  The  things  needed  in  solving 
the  problems  were  suggested  : 

"  1.  The  value  of  trade  in  money  and  quantity  of 
trade  in  tons. 

"  2.   Description  of  the  two  harbors. 

"3.  Position  of  the  two  cities  with  reference  to  our 
country,  to  foreign  countries. 

"4.   Articles  of  trade." 

The  various  points  were  discussed  in  class,  references 
were  reviewed,  and  finally  a  series  of  conclusions  was 
prepared  and  adopted  by  the  class. 

This  is  reported  as  a  project-problem,  but  owing  to 
the  fact  that  there  was  no  provision  for  the  natural 
setting,  it  is  more  accurately  classed  as  a  multi- 
problem.1 

(b)  Simple  and  Complex  Projects 

Not  only  are  there  simple  problems  and  complex 
problems,  but  in  like  manner  there  are  simple  and 
complex  projects.  The  girl  who  accepts  the  problem 
of  peeling  potatoes  economically  at  home  may  be  said 
to  be  carrying  out  a  simple  project,  but  her  task  is 
much  less  complex  than  that  of  the  girl  who  under- 
takes as  her  project  the  entire  preparation  of  the 
meals  for  the  family  for  a  period  of  a  month  with  par- 

1  Williams,  Jennie,  "  Project  Problem  Instruction  in  the  Eighth  Grade 
Geography,"  Teaching,  No.  45,  pp.  11-15.  A  Journal  published  by 
Kansas  State  Normal  School,  Emporia,  Kansas. 


108        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

ticular  attention  to  the  reduction  of  cost.  The  latter 
is  a  complex  project. 

Obviously,  it  will  be  very  difficult  to  draw  an  exact 
line  of  demarcation  between  the  simple  and  complex 
problems  and  projects,  but  this  guiding  principle  may 
be  posited.  When  the  process  has  sufficient  complex- 
ity to  be  broken  up  into  a  number  of  problems  or  simple 
projects,  it  may  be  classed  as  complex. 

The  classification  of  projects  into  simple  and  com- 
plex is  recognized  by  C.  R.  Allen  : 

"  '  Projects  '  may  include  major  and  minor  projects, 
the  latter  being  a  subdivision  of  the  former.  For 
example,  a  boy  might  undertake  to  raise  an  acre  of 
corn  as  his  major  project.  A  minor  project  connected 
therewith  would  be  the  preparation  of  the  soil  or  the 
test  of  the  seed."  * 

In  order  that  the  proposed  classification  will  be 
better  understood,  a  number  of  simple  and  complex 
projects  will  be  cited. 

(l)  Simple  Projects  and  Illustrations 

Such  tasks  as  sharpening  tools,  cutting  to  a  line, 
planing  a  board,  and  fitting  a  joint  in  the  manual 
training  class  when  carried  on  in  a  natural  setting  may 
be  considered  as  simple  projects.  The  baking  of  a  loaf 
of  bread,  setting  the  table,  serving  the  meal,  and  going 

1  Allen,  C.  R.,  "The  Project  Method  and  the  Combination  of  the 
Project  Method  with  the  Phase  Method."  Massachusetts  Board  of 
Education,  Bulletin  75,  p.  50. 


PROBLEMS  AND   PROJECTS  109 

to  the  meat  market  to  procure  a  certain  cut  of  meat 
may  be  called  simple  projects  in  home  economics. 
Making  an  analysis  of  soil,  testing  varieties  of  seed 
corn,  spraying  fruit  trees  with  a  given  mixture,  keep- 
ing a  milk  record  for  a  week,  selecting  and  preparing 
seed  potatoes,  developing  plans  to  remove  surface 
water  around  farm  buildings,  treating  seeds  with 
formalin,  introducing  a  plan  for  proper  feed  rations 
for  domestic  animals,  if  carried  on  in  the  natural 
setting,  are  representative  for  agriculture.  In  art, 
framing  a  picture  according  to  principles  of  design, 
making  curtains,  selecting  artistic  but  inexpensive  wall 
paper,  illustrate  the  simple  project. 

In  composition,  writing  an  invitation,  a  report  of  a 
recent  athletic  game  for  the  school  paper,  or  a  letter 
illustrate  the  simple  project  in  composition. 

In  arithmetic,  solving  simple  problems  which  arise 
in  connection  with  some  of  the  home  activities,  such 
as  checking  over  the  weekly  grocery  bill,  illustrate  the 
simple  project. 

(2)  Complex  Projects  and  Illustrations 

A  complex  project  differs  from  the  simple  project 
only  in  the  degree  of  complexity.  As  stated  previously 
it  is  difficult  to  draw  a  sharp  line  between  the  simple 
project  and  the  complex.  To  illustrate  the  point  a 
little  more  fully,  projects  might  be  arranged  in  the 
order  of  complexity  beginning  with  the  least  complex 
and  ending  with  the  most  complex  suited  to  school 


110        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

conditions.  The  complex  projects  would  consist  of  the 
projects  in  the  upper  half  of  this  group.  At  the  point 
in  the  scale  where  the  projects  were  sufficiently  com- 
plex to  be  broken  up  into  smaller  problems  and  proj- 
ects, that  point  would,  in  general  terms,  mark  the 
beginning  of  complex  projects. 

Complex  Projects  in  Agriculture 

A  number  of  projects  outlined  by  Stimson  in  his 
bulletin  on  "  The  Massachusetts  Home  Project  Plan 
of  Vocational  Agricultural  Education  "  illustrate  the 
complex  project.  The  project  of  constructing  a  con- 
crete walk  might  involve  a  study  of  the  nature  of 
cement ;  its  action  on  sand,  gravel,  and  broken  stone  ; 
its  weather-resisting  qualities ;  the  seasons  in  which 
it  might  be  used ;  the  cost  as  compared  with  plank, 
brick,  flagging,  and  asphalt ;  the  mathematical  deter- 
mination of  proportions  of  sand,  cement,  and  stone  to 
be  used  ;  the  geometrical  determination  of  the  sections 
into  which  it  should  be  divided,  and  whether  it  should 
be  crowned  or  flat ;  the  geographical  sources  of  the 
raw  material  and  the  commercial  conditions  for  pur- 
chasing the  cement. 

"  The  home  project,  or  part-time  plan  of  instruction, 
moreover  fits  in  nicely  in  its  relation  to  the  usual  farm 
activities  of  the  boy.  The  boy  may  help  with  the 
milking  throughout  his  course,  where  the  object  is  to 
get  the  cows  milked  as  quickly  as  possible  and  where 
no  records  are  kept.  During  certain  months  of  at 


PROBLEMS  AND  PROJECTS  111 

least  one  year  the  school  should  require  whatever  time 
may  be  necessary  for  keeping  an  accurate  record  in 
pounds  and  ounces  of  the  yield  of  a  part  of  the  herd. 
This  may  be  limited  to  the  weighing  of  milk  from  a 
single  cow  and  giving  credit  for  what  she  produces."  * 

The  complex  project  in  agriculture  is  well  illustrated 
by  French  under  the  name  "  long  time  projects."  2 
Such  projects  as  raising  an  acre  or  more  of  corn,  taking 
charge  of  an  entire  vegetable  garden,  or  apple  orchard, 
or  the  poultry  for  a  season,  give  the  scope  of  complex 
projects  suggested  by  French. 

The  student  in  a  class  in  Modern  History  who  be- 
came interested  in  the  map  of  Europe  and  decided  he 
would  account  for  the  present  map  undertook  a  com- 
plex project. 

A  Complex  Project  Centering  around  the  Parcel  Post 

A  very  complex  project  centering  around  the  parcel 
post,  by  C.  W.  Stone,  will  be  summarized.  It  has  been 
thoroughly  developed  and  cuts  across  many  subjects  in 
the  curriculum.  It  will  serve  as  a  good  example  of  the 
project  worked  out  fully. 

Since  the  children  plan  at  the  holiday  season  to  send 
packages  to  distant  friends  and  relatives  they  naturally 

1  Stimson,  R.  W.,  "The  Massachusetts  Home  Project  Plan  of  Vo- 
cational Agricultural  Education."  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulle- 
tin 579,  pp.  13-15,  1914. 

1  French,  W.  H.,  "  Home  Project  in  Agriculture  for  Michigan  High 
Schools  and  School  Credits,"  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  Bulletin 
No.  17,  1916. 


112        THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OP  TEACHING 

consider  the  various  ways  by  which  they  may  be  sent. 
This  gives  a  natural  motive  for  the  study  of  the  parcel 
post  a  few  weeks  before  the  holidays.  This  project 
was  undertaken  by  the  fourth  grade  class  in  the  Iowa 
Teachers  College  Training  School.  "  The  main  pur- 
pose was  to  bring  the  subject  before  the  children  in 
such  a  way  as  to  prepare  them  to  use  the  parcel  post 
service  to  the  best  advantage.  Accordingly,  it  was 
worked  out  not  only  through  general  discussions  in 
which  the  entire  grade  took  part,  but  also  in  their 
class  work  in  handwork,  geography,  arithmetic,  and 
language." 

The  available  experience  which  the  children  had  for 
this  project  was  ability  to  read  and  write ;  a  knowledge 
of  simple  mathematics,  including  measurements,  some 
knowledge  of  places  in  relation  to  their  own  locality ; 
ability  to  do  elementary  manual  work ;  they  had 
received  packages  by  parcel  post  and  had  seen  the 
parcel  postman  delivering  packages. 

"  The  main  aims  which  the  teacher  had  in  mind 
were  (l)  to  teach  the  children  how  to  wrap  and  address 
correctly  packages  to  be  sent  by  parcel  post,  (2)  to 
teach  them  what  might  or  might  not  be  sent  by  parcel 
post,  (3)  to  teach  them  the  advantages  of  parcel  post 
service,  (4)  to  give  them  practical  problems  in  arith- 
metic, (5)  to  make  a  beginning  of  map  reading  by 
locating  the  places  to  which  packages  were  to  be  sent, 
(6)  to  give  them  a  larger  conception  of  civic  life,  (7)  to 
train  them  in  obedience  to  laws  and  regulations,  and 
(8)  to  teach  them  to  help  other  people. 

The  rules  and  regulations  of  sending  packages  by 
parcel  post  were  worked  out  by  the  pupils  and  teacher, 
the  larger  part  was  suggested  by  the  pupils. 

The  technique  and  practice  of  wrapping  packages 


PROBLEMS  AND   PROJECTS  113 

was  carried  out  in  the  handwork  lesson.  Here  ques- 
tions as  to  the  cord  and  paper  to  be  used  and  the 
methods  of  wrapping  different  types  of  articles  were 
developed.  Each  child  selected  an  article  and  wrapped 
it,  developing  principles  as  needed.  The  addressing 
of  the  packages  with  its  problems  was  done  in  the 
language  class  and  the  study  of  the  parcel  post  zones 
was  carried  on  in  the  geography  class.  In  the  arith- 
metic class  the  children  were  taught  to  weigh  and 
compute  the  cost  of  sending  their  packages  to  different 
zones.  After  computing  the  cost,  the  packages  were 
taken  to  the  postmaster,  each  member  in  turn  acting 
as  postmaster,  to  purchase  stamps.  The  postmaster 
then  weighed  the  package,  looked  up  the  zone,  com- 
puted the  cost  of  sending  the  package,  returning  the 
change  to  the  pupil.  This  work  furnished  material 
for  practical  problems  in  arithmetic. 

Some  of  the  children  actually  sent  packages  which 
they  had  wrapped  in  class,  thereby  testing  the  results 
of  this  exercise. 

The  package  which  furnished  the  greatest  interest 
was  the  one  prepared  for  an  orphans'  home.  The 
children  brought  toys  from  home  and  made  others  in 
the  manual  training  class  for  the  gift.  The  prepara- 
tion of  this  package,  the  wrapping,  packing,  and  ad- 
dressing constituted  one  class  exercise.  A  letter  written 
by  one  of  the  members  of  the  class  was  included,  re- 
questing one  of  the  children  receiving  the  package  to 
answer.  Since  this  letter  was  chosen  as  the  best  by  a 
committee  it  furnished  competition,  a  motive,  for  the 
writing  of  the  letter. 

'  This  study  of  the  parcel  post  has  given  the  chil- 
dren a  practical  knowledge  which  will  enable  them  to 
render  assistance  at  home  whenever  the  need  of  sending 


114        THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

a  package  by  parcel  post  may  arise.  It  has  been  a 
socializing  influence.  It  has  made  them  more  observ- 
ant of  civic  relations  and  has  opened  their  eyes  to  the 
possibility  of  their  being  able  even  as  children  to  bring 
pleasure  to  others.  The  whole  series  of  lessons  furnishes 
a  good  example  of  the  kind  of  school  work  which  is  a 
part  of  actual  everyday  living."  1 

A  Complex  Project  in  Physics 

In  a  high  school  physics  course,  the  writer  taught  the 
principles  and  uses  of  the  electric  bell  by  the  project 
method.  Each  year  one  or  more  of  the  school  buildings 
had  to  have  the  bell  system  completely  overhauled, 
which  meant  to  install  new  bells,  new  wires,  repair  some 
of  the  bells,  find  short  circuits,  and,  in  many  cases,  make 
parts  for  bells  or  construct  complete  new  ones.  This 
project  was  discussed  by  the  members  of  the  class  and 
leaders  were  appointed  for  each  phase  of  the  work. 
The  principles  of  the  electric  bell  were  developed  as 
needed  in  this  task.  Usually  this  experiment  resulted 
in  bell  systems  being  placed  in  the  homes. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  complex  projects  proposed 
have  been  of  sufficient  complexity  to  allow  them  to  be 
broken  up  into  problems  and  simple  projects. 

V.   SUMMARY 

It  may  be  restated  that  the  project  is  a  problematic 
act  carried  to  completion  in  its  natural  setting.  It 

1  Stone,  C.  W.,  "Parcel  Post  Project." 


PROBLEMS  AND   PROJECTS  115 

differs  essentially  from  the  problem  in  that  it  provides 
for  the  natural  setting  of  the  teaching  unit  and  lays 
emphasis  on  the  manual  act. 

Problems  may  be  classified  as  (l)  intellectual  and 
(2)  manual. 

Projects  may  also  be  classified  as  (1)  intellectual  and 
(2)  manual. 

On  the  basis  of  complexity,  problems  may  be  classi- 
fied as  (l)  simple  and  (2)  multi-problems ;  projects 
may  be  classified  as  (l)  simple  and  (2)  complex. 

The  multi-problem  gives  superior  training  in  develop- 
ing the  technique  of  reasoning  and  "  tends  to  make 
facts  interesting  and  significant."  The  project,  par- 
ticularly the  complex  project,  in  addition  to  develop- 
ing the  technique  of  reasoning,  provides  the  natural 
setting  for  problems  and  carries  facts  into  action. 

Making  provision  for  the  natural  setting  sometimes 
may  be  uneconomical.  If  so,  the  problem  method  is 
advisable. 


CHAPTER  V 

IMPLICATIONS    OF   THE    PROJECT    METHOD 
OF  TEACHING 

I.  THE  PROJECT  AND  MOTIVATION 

THE  definition  of  the  project  includes  the  natural 
setting  of  the  problem.  This  means  that  the  problem 
has  more  significance  for  the  learner.  The  natural 
setting  of  the  project  makes  provision  for  a  strong 
motive.  The  testing  of  seed  corn  for  the  father's  or 
for  the  boy's  own  corn  crop  is  more  interesting  than 
testing  seed  corn  as  a  formal  laboratory  exercise.  Test- 
ing the  baking  powder  for  the  mother  is  connected  with 
more  interests  than  carrying  on  this  test  as  a  labora- 
tory experiment.  The  class  in  school  hygiene  which 
makes  a  sanitary  survey  of  the  town  with  a  view  to 
improving  health  conditions  works  on  a  project  which 
is  connected  with  more  interests  than  the  study  of 
the  principles  of  hygiene  in  a  school  text.  The  boy 
who  went  to  Robinson's  "  History  of  Western  Europe  " 
to  find  the  reasons  why  serious  consideration  is  being 
given  to  the  creation  of  Poland,  probably  would  have 
read  the  history  of  the  three  partitions  of  Poland  with 

116 


IMPLICATIONS   OF  THE   PROJECT   METHOD     117 

far  greater  interest  had  this  problem  been  used  to 
vitalize  the  usual  logical  method  in  history. 
A  statement  by  Charters  illustrates  this  point : 

"  The  natural  setting  provides  a  strong  motive,  — 
canning  fruit  for  the  family  is  more  interesting,  we  will 
say,  than  cooking  a  little  fruit  in  a  small  laboratory 
utensil.  Treating  the  mold  on  fruit  '  I  have  canned  for 
winter  use'  is  more  stimulating  than  studying  molds 
as  ends  in  themselves.  Studying  sterilization  to  use 
immediately  in  putting  up  fruit  for  friends  has  much 
more  appeal  than  merely  studying  sterilization  as  a 
class  exercise.  Tying  the  process  to  outcomes  and 
beginnings  of  a  varied  and  intensely  fundamental  sort 
tends  to  produce  a  great  spontaneous  interest.  All 
projects  are  not  interesting  to  any  one  student,  but  if  a 
project  is  selected  so  as  to  be  of  interest,  the  degree  of 
the  interest  is  likely  to  be  very  high  because  of  the 
setting  in  the  experience  of  the  student.  It  is  claimed 
that  when  the  project  is  interesting,  it  is  very 
interesting."  l 

The  project  is  able  to  create  interest  of  a  deep-seated 
sort  because  the  interest  comes  from  associative  con- 
nections from  many  sources.  The  project  offers  many 
more  reservoirs  from  which  interest  may  be  drawn.  If 
a  boy  wishes  to  study  or  experiment  with  the  method 
of  testing  seed  corn  merely  to  pass  an  examination  or 
to  make  a  grade  in  a  certain  course,  the  interest  in  the 
test  or  experiment  flows  in,  or  is  irrigated  from,  the 

1  Charters,  W.  W.,  "The  Project  in  Home  Economics."  Journal  of 
Home  Economics,  Vol.  10,  p.  117,  March,  1918. 


118        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

grade  or  examination  reservoir.  But  if,  in  addition, 
he  is  making  the  test  in  order  to  help  his  father  to  buy 
the  seed  corn  economically,  if  he  is  planning  to  grow 
ten  acres  of  corn  from  which  he  will  receive  a  profit, 
if  his  own  schooling  or  a  trip  for  his  mother  depends 
upon  the  success  of  his  project,  then  there  are  just  so 
many  more  reservoirs  of  interest  which  are  tapped  by 
the  project. 

If  the  testing  of  the  seed  corn  is  tied  up  with  many 
more  numerous  interests  than  that  of  merely  making  a 
passing  grade,  then  it  means  a  greater  amount  of  in- 
terest. The  potentiality  of  interest  in  projects  is  great 
because  of  their  wide  and  varied  connections. 

Some  teachers  in  agriculture  find  that  the  work  done 
on  the  plots  of  ground  owned  by  the  school  is  not 
capable  of  arousing  the  genuine  interest  of  pupils ; 
this  is  due  probably  to  the  artificial  setting.  When 
the  work  is  taken  up  as  projects  at  home  and  on  their 
own  farms  great  interest  is  aroused  because  of  the 
natural  setting  for  the  problem.  This  means  that  the 
work  on  the  home  farm  is  tied  up  with  more  interests 
for  the  boy.  The  statement  from  MacHoke  bears  out 
this  point. 

"  We  find  home  work  giving  better  results  than  work 
of  a  similar  nature  on  plants  owned  by  the  school. 
Each  boy  in  a  daily  course  is  required  to  keep  records 
of  cows  on  the  farm.  Farmers  are  urged  to  leave 
samples  of  milk  or  products  of  milk.  These  are  tested 
by  the  high  school,  and  reports  are  made  to  the  farmers 


IMPLICATIONS  OF  THE   PROJECT  METHOD      119 

and  to  the  federal  dairy  department.  We  are  testing 
sixty  dairy  cows  at  this  time.  More  farmers  will  come 
in  as  soon  as  they  have  an  opportunity  to  arrange  it. 
We  do  a  great  deal  of  practical  work  on  the  farms  near, 
such  as  pruning,  spraying,  making  butter,  oiling  harness, 
judging  stock,  repairing  machinery,  growing  crops.  We 
are  able  to  arouse  deep  interest  among  the  pupils  only 
by  practical  work  in  bringing  subjects  home  to  them, 
so  that  they  can  see  the  value  of  taking  the  course. 
The  course  is  growing  in  popularity,  and  we  anticipate 
large  numbers  next  year."  l 

The  psychology  of  the  project  seems  very  simple. 
Every  one  works  with  the  greatest  effort  at  the  problem 
in  which  he  is  most  interested.  The  project  provides 
for  a  natural  setting  which  means  that  it  is  associated 
with  many  interests  of  the  learner.  It  follows  that  the 
projects  which  are  accepted  for  solution  will  be  highly 
motivated  —  they  will  be  worked  at  with  a  maximum 
effort  because  they  hold  great  significance  for  the 
learner.  A  need  for  the  solution  is  felt.  This  idea  is 
implied  by  Stimson  in  the  following  comment  on  the 
interest  developed  by  the  project  method. 

'  The  methods  by  which  the  boy  becomes  on  a 
small  scale  a  farmer  or  business  man  for  himself  gives 
the  project  which  he  is  carrying  on  and  the  school 
work  in  which  he  participates  a  reality  not  otherwise 
attainable.  It  heightens  measurably  his  interest  in 
the  work  and  in  the  related  study  of  the  school,  and 

1  "Agricultural  Teaching."  Bulletin  No.  601,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, p.  60,  1914. 


120        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

must  fix  better  than  by  any  other  device  the  training 
which  he  is  receiving." 

Before  concluding  the  topic  of  the  project  and  mo- 
tivation it  should  be  pointed  out  that  projects  are 
not  always  intrinsically  interesting,  in  spite  of  the 
claims  made  by  the  advocates  of  the  project  method. 
As  Charters  indicates  : 

"  Projects  may  be  interesting  or  uninteresting. 
There  is  no  divine  alchemy  in  the  project.  The  proj- 
ect may  be  interesting  to  one  class  and  not  to  another. 
It  may  be  interesting  to  some  children  in  the  class  and 
not  to  all.  It  can,  of  course,  be  shown  that  the  pos- 
sibilities of  interest  are  much  greater  than  in  the  facts 
learned  in  topical  organization  or  even  in  multi-prob- 
lems." 2 

II.   THE  PROJECT  AND  THINKING 

It  is  unnecessary  to  take  up  at  any  length  the  impor- 
tance of  thinking.  It  is  more  pertinent  to  present 
methods  by  which  effective  thinking  may  be  attained, 
and  in  this  discussion  to  show  the  relation  of  the  proj- 
ect to  thinking. 

A  brief  statement  of  the  conditions  which  determine 
and  promote  thinking  is  accordingly  presented  herewith. 

Thinking  occurs  in  a  doubtful  or  perplexing  situa- 
tion ;  it  is  the  establishment  of  connections  between 
means  and  ends.  "  Since  the  situation  in  which  think- 


,  R.  W.,  "The  Massachusetts  Home  Project  Plan  of  Vo- 
cational Agricultural  Education,"  p.  15,  Bulletin  No.  579,  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Education,  1914. 
*  Charters,  W.  W.,  "  Systematic  Topics,  Multi-problems,  and  Projects." 


IMPLICATIONS   OF  THE   PROJECT   METHOD      121 

ing  occurs  is  a  doubtful  one,  thinking  is  a  process  of 
inquiring,  of  looking  into  things,  of  investigation."  1 
Mind  is  active,  not  passive,  and  its  methods  of  pro- 
cedure are  experimental. 

The  value  of  the  project  in  directing  thinking  is 
shown  in  the  following  statements. 

The  student  may  propose  and  accept  the  project  of 
installing  an  electric  signal  service  in  the  home.  In 
planning  the  installation  he  faces  this  problem  of 
determining  the  amounts  of  material,  the  cost  and 
initial  steps  of  installation.  After  he  has  completed 
the  project  he  may  find  that  certain  bells  will  not  ring, 
which  will  cause  him  to  review  the  whole  situation. 
His  problem  for  the  time  being  will  be  to  find  the 
immediate  difficulty  and  he  will  go  to  the  individual 
bell  that  does  not  respond  to  find  the  trouble.  He 
may  resort  to  his  source  material  and  read  about  the 
essential  parts  of  the  bell ;  and  with  this  information 
he  may  find  that  the  make-and-break  connection  was 
not  properly  adjusted.  Again  he  may  discover  that 
certain  windows  when  raised  will  not  give  the  alarm, 
and  this,  causes  him  to  shift  his  attack  to  this  problem. 
He  may  trace  out  short  circuits,  he  may  find  batteries 
poorly  connected,  or  the  battery  solution  not  properly 
prepared.  A  certain  button  when  pressed  may  cause 
a  bell  to  ring  continuously,  and  many  other  details 
may  arise  which  will  cause  the  boy  to  question  himself, 
to  examine  his  method,  to  abstract  free  ideas,  to  test 
1  Dewey,  John,  "  Democracy  and  Education,"  p.  173. 


122        THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

his  application  of  principles,  and  to  make  readjust- 
ments to  suit  these  given  conditions. 

Each  new  problem  or  experience  in  the  project  leads 
the  boy  to  shift  his  methods  to  meet  and  solve  the 
difficulties.  The  projects,  to  be  most  educative,  will 
develop  situations  bound  to  demand  more  thinking. 
To  be  thoroughly  educative,  the  project  must  lead  the 
individual  to  full  activity,  characteristic  of  a  true 
project. 

The  project  gives  the  ideal  organization  of  subject 
matter  to  arouse  an  aim  and  to  direct  thinking.  The 
thinking  of  most  worth  to  the  individual  is  that  which 
is  directed  by  his  own  aims  and  not  an  aim  held  by 
someone  else  or  one  forced  upon  him.  If  the  pupil 
has  a  specific  aim  he  appreciates  the  difficulty  he  has 
to  solve,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  he  will  be  able 
to  select  his  material  intelligently  to  aid  in  the  solution. 
Unless  his  thinking  accomplishes  results,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  it  is  of  much  value. 

Teachers  frequently  have  the  notion  that,  if  students 
are  assigned  difficult  problems  which  they  attempt  to 
solve  but  fail,  they  are  being  given  valuable  training. 
There  are,  of  course,  few  accurately  derived  data  from 
which  to  gain  light  on  this  contention,  but  the  alleged 
value  is  doubtful,  particularly  if  we  count  the  dis- 
couragement of  the  pupil  which  naturally  follows  an 
unaccomplished  task.  The  sensitiveness  of  the  pupil 
must  be  guarded,  and  teachers  must  not  allow  him  to 
lose  his  self-confidence. 


IMPLICATIONS  OF  THE   PROJECT  METHOD      123 

Organization  of  the  schools  and  the  curricula  should 
provide  opportunity  for  developing  life  situations, 
which  will  involve  effectual  thought.  It  may  be  a 
long  time  before  our  schools  are  so  organized  as  to  take 
care  of  the  projects  which  typify  life  situations,  but 
there  is  no  excuse  for  not  applying  projects  as  far  as 
possible  without  completely  disorganizing  our  present 
system.  Information,  whether  gained  in  school  or  out- 
side of  school,  will  be  vitalized  by  close  association 
with  its  use  or  function.  The  project  offers  a  conven- 
ient unit  to  carry  forward  information  simultaneously 
with  its  function.  As  Dewey  says : 

"  Every  recitation  in  every  subject  gives  an  oppor- 
tunity for  establishing  cross  connections  between  the 
subject  matter  of  the  lesson  and  the  wider  and  more 
direct  experiences  of  everyday  life. 

"  Processes  of  instruction  are  unified  in  the  degree 
in  which  they  center  in  the  production  of  good  habits 
of  thinking.  While  we  may  speak,  without  error,  of 
the  method  of  thought,  the  important  thing  is  that 
thinking  is  the  method  of  an  educative  experience. 
The  essentials  of  method  are  therefore  identical  with 
the  essentials  of  reflection.  They  are  first  that  the 
pupil  have  a  genuine  situation  of  experience  —  that 
there  be  a  continuous  activity  in  which  he  is  interested 
for  its  own  sake ;  secondly,  that  a  genuine  problem 
develop  within  this  situation  as  a  stimulus  to  thought ; 
third,  that  he  possess  the  information  and  make  the 
observations  needed  to  deal  with  it ;  fourth,  that  sug- 
gested solutions  occur  to  him  which  he  shall  be  respon- 
sible for  developing  in  an  orderly  way ;  fifth,  that  he 


124        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

have  opportunity  and  occasion  to  test  his  ideas  by 
application,  to  make  their  meaning  clear  and  to  dis- 
cover for  himself  their  validity."  1 

The  project  as  denned  makes  provision  for  the 
necessary  requisites  for  thinking  as  outlined  by  Dewey. 

The  following  project  is  outlined  to  show  how  the 
project  takes  into  account  these  items  : 

The  boy  accepts  the  project  of  determining  the  value 
of  each  cow  in  his  father's  herd  of  fifteen,  with  the 
additional  idea  of  improving  the  production  by  proper 
rations.  Possibly  the  father  has  agreed  to  credit  him 
with  half  of  his  savings,  with  the  understanding  that 
this  money  is  to  aid  in  the  boy's  college  education. 
This  type  of  project  may  be  exaggerated.  Possibly 
few  projects  can  or  will  be  tied  up  with  so  many  points 
of  interest,  yet  this  one  is  not  at  all  impossible,  in  fact, 
it  has  actually  been  used.  It  has  the  merit  of  giving 
the  pupil  a  genuine  situation.  There  is  continuous 
activity  in  carrying  the  project  forward  when  the  pupil 
is  interested.  Second,  there  will  be  many  genuine 
problems  developing  within  this  project,  which  will  be 
a  stimulus  to  thought.  The  boy  will  keep  a  daily  rec- 
ord of  the  rations,  the  record  of  the  products  of  each 
cow,  and  possibly  will  develop  the  determination  to  get 
rid  of  the  non-paying  cows  and  to  invest  in  new  and 
better  stock.  Situations  arise  daily  which  demand 
that  the  boy  take  an  inventory  of  the  conditions  and 
make  a  hypothesis.  Third,  he  must  possess  informa- 
1  Dewey,  John,  "  Democracy  and  Education,"  pp.  191-192. 


IMPLICATIONS   OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD      125 

tion  and  take  observations  in  order  to  make  a  success 
of  his  project.  If  he  doubts  his  recommendations,  he 
will  go  to  the  sources  of  information  to  help  him  solve 
the  difficulties.  It  may  be  that  a  few  days'  change  of 
rations  may  seem  rather  expensive  and  not  worth 
while,  even  though  the  production  shows  a  slight  gain. 
The  authorities  he  consults  will  probably  point  out  that 
a  radical  or  material  improvement  cannot  be  expected 
immediately.  Fourth,  suggested  solutions  of  the 
method  of  improvement  will  come  to  him  daily.  He 
will  be  compelled  to  develop  these  hypotheses  in  an 
orderly  way  in  order  to  check  results.  Fifth,  this 
project  affords  ample  opportunity  and  occasion  to  apply 
his  ideas.  He  will  have  occasion  to  test  expert  opinion 
on  rations,  on  breeds  of  stock,  and  he  will  be  able  to 
discover  for  himself  the  validity  of  these  recommenda- 
tions. 

In  order  to  carry  his  project  to  completion  with 
distinct  success,  it  is  not  only  possible,  but  necessary, 
that  attention  be  given  to  the  items  which  Dewey 
points  out  as  essential  to  real  thinking. 

The  project  directs  thinking ;  it  develops  the  atti- 
tudes of  scientific  research  that  should  be  fostered  in 
our  secondary  schools.  Boys  and  girls  in  the  secondary 
schools  have  plenty  of  projects  and  are  eager  to  receive 
the  teacher's  help  in  solving  them.  Indeed  projects 
furnish  the  natural  means  for  developing  a  scientific 
attitude.  The  pupil  secures  larger  benefit  if  he  origi- 
nates the  project,  but  by  no  means  should  we  classify 


126        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

projects  as  worthless  if  the  teacher  suggests  them. 
The  value  then  depends  on  whether  the  pupil  accepts 
them  as  his  own,  and  this  is  where  skill  in  teaching  will 
be  of  considerable  service. 

The  steps  in  the  logical  method  of  arriving  at  a 
solution  of  a  problem  are :  (l)  defining  the  problem. ; 
(2)  collection  of  data ;  (3)  hypothesis  ;  (4)  verification. 

The  project  when  carried  to  completion  uses  the 
identical  steps  of  logical  thinking.  If  the  foregoing 
items  were  given  as  constituting  the  method  the  proj- 
ect employs  in  arriving  at  solutions,  the  statement 
would  be  wholly  correct.  The  project  furnishes  the 
opportunity  for  placing  pupils  in  situations  in  which 
it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  they  think  in  order  to 
solve  the  difficulty. 

This  point  is  well  emphasized  by  J.  C.  Moore  in  the 
following  paragraphs : 

"  Pasteur,  working  on  his  asymmetric  crystals  of 
tartaric  acid,  came  near  being  caught  in  the  obscurity 
of  university  research,  but  Dumas  called  him  to  a  real 
project,  the  elimination  of  the  silkworm  disease  that 
was  causing  a  loss  of  20,000,000  kilograms  of  cocoons 
to  France  each  year.  He  was  not  a  technically  trained 
biologist,  but  having  felt  the  need,  the  problem  became 
vital.  He  threw  all  his  energies  into  the  work,  to  the 
study  he  brought  the  resources  from  many  fields,  ex- 
perimenting, testing,  proving,  until  the  result  was 
obtained. 

'  Then  followed  that  wonderful  list  of  projects,  grow- 
ing out  of  the  needs  of  his  day.  The  story  of  every 


IMPLICATIONS  OF  THE   PROJECT  METHOD      127 

great  invention  is  the  story  of  a  project,  and  in  it  we 
find  the  following  elements  : 

"  A  felt  need,  real,  vital,  growing  out  of  the  un- 
answered past  of  one's  environment. 

"  A  growing  interest  and  enthusiasm  calling  for  one's 
best  energies  and  resulting  in  activity. 

"  A  broad,  comprehensive  search  for  related  material. 

"  An  organization  of  the  results  of  personal  activity 
for  solving  the  given  project.  This  summary  does  not 
differ  greatly  from  Dewey's  analysis  of  the  completed 
act  of  thought."  l 

The  relation  of  the  project  to  thinking  is  indicated 
clearly  by  Charters. 

"  An  advantage  claimed  is  that  the  natural  setting 
and  the  great  multi-problem  with  its  coherent  subordi- 
nate problems  make  the  intellect  function  in  a  fuller  tide 
of  activity.  The  strong  initial  motive  and  the  constant 
side  lights  from  practical  conditions  and  immediate 
practical  outcomes  makes  the  student  think  with  a 
higher  degree  of  effectiveness."  2 

The  project  must  grip  the  pupil  in  order  to  be  edu- 
cative. The  organization  of  the  child's  thinking  will 
be  better  if  he  centers  it  in  a  unified  theme  or  problem, 
so  well  embodied  in  the  project.  The  pupil's  own 
projects,  and  not  the  teacher's,  quicken  and  coordinate 
his  thinking. 

1  Moore,  J.  C.,  "Project  Science,"  School  Science  and  Mathematics, 
Vol.  16,  p.  688,  1916. 

1  Charters,  W.  W.,  "The  Project  in  Home  Economics  Teaching," 
Journal  of  Home  Economics,  Vol.  16,  pp.  117,  118,  1918. 


128        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

III.  THE  PROJECT  AND  HABIT-FORMATION 

It  is  a  recognized  fact  that  drill  work  is  a  significant 
function  in  education ;  and  it  is  equally  true  that  at 
times  we  may  have  overemphasized  the  value  of  such 
drill.  There  is  little  doubt  that  a  large  amount  of 
drill  has  been  formal  and  unrelated  to  the  student's 
problem.  Dewey  well  says  : 

"  Not  less  serious  is  exaggerated  emphasis  upon  drill 
exercises  designed  to  produce  skill  in  action,  independ- 
ent of  any  engagement  of  thought-exercises  having  no 
purpose  but  the  production  of  automatic  skill."  1 

The  corrective  measure  to  apply  to  situations  of  this 
type  is  certainly  not  to  propose  a  scheme  which  will 
consciously  neglect  drill  work  and  habit-formation,  or 
seemingly  make  no  provision  to  take  care  of  drills  and 
habit-formation.  Habits  and  skills  are  far  too  impor- 
tant in  education  to  permit  the  assumption  that  they 
will  be  acquired  incidentally  in  the  project  method. 
A  methodology  which  makes  no  provision  for  habits 
and  skills,  other  than  in  a  purely  incidental  way,  is 
seriously  defective  and  may  subject  its  proponents  to 
the  serious  criticism  that  they  are  encouraging  "  soft 
pedagogy."  The  importance  which  should  be  given 
to  provisions  for  habit-formation  is  clearly  indicated 
by  Bagley : 

:i  The  work  of  habit-building  must  always  be  ac- 
corded the  most  important  place  in  elementary  edu- 
1  Dewey,  John,  "Democracy  and  Education,"  p.  209. 


IMPLICATIONS   OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD      129 

cation.  That  habits  formed  in  the  school  may  not 
function  in  the-  situations  of  later  life  is  clearly  ap- 
parent. That  training  may  not  '  spread '  beyond 
limits  of  the  specific  function  trained  suggests  the 
advisability  of  limiting  the  strenuous  processes  of 
habit-building  (l)  to  those  automatic  responses  that 
will  be  of  unquestioned  service  and  (2)  to  those  re- 
sponses that  may  serve  as  concrete  bases  for  the  later 
development  of  concepts  and  ideals  of  conduct.  .  .  . 
The  fault  of  American  schools  today  lies  not  in  the 
mechanical  grind  that  they  are  popularly  supposed  to 
represent,  but  in  the  inadequacy  of  the  really  small 
measure  of  drill  work  that  is  attempted."  l 

The  need  of  drill  and  habit-formation  which  supple- 
ments the  home  project  in  teaching  agriculture  is 
recognized  by  Stimson.  In  the  forenoon  and  after- 
noon groups  the  first  period  in  each  session  is  given  to 
a  general  study  of  the  productive  side  of  agriculture 
and  rural  life.  Before  the  close  of  each  session  a  period 
is  set  aside  to  subject  individual  ideas  and  plans  to 
the  criticism  of  the  entire  class,  to  clarify  principles, 
and  to  intensify  impressions  through  drill.  The  time 
is  used  to  give  a  single  focus  of  attention  through 
collective  action.  This  is  a  step  in  the  right  direction. 
These  periods  for  the  single  focus  of  attention  should 
be  frequent  enough  to  guarantee  that  skills  and  habits 
will  be  formed  ;  otherwise  the  pupils  will  be  interested 
in  the  projects  and  will  fail  to  get  the  habits  and  skills 
they  are  entitled  to  receive. 

1  Bagley,  W.  C.,  "Educational  Values,"  pp.  137-138,  1911. 


130        THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

The  acquiring  of  habits  and  skills  may,  however,  be 
stimulated  by  the  project  method.  In  carrying  for- 
ward a  given  project,  the  pupils  may  discover  that 
they  are  lacking  in  certain  habits  and  skills  and  that 
their  progress  is  impeded  because  of  this  deficiency. 
This  realization  of  the  lack  creates  the  natural  setting 
for  a  project  in  the  acquisition  of  the  needed  skills  and 
habits.  For  example,  in  one  project  in  physics,  it 
was  discovered  by  the  class  that  they  were  deficient  in 
algebraic  equations.  It  was  a  third-year  class  and 
they  had  had  no  algebra  since  their  first  year  in  high 
school.  Lacking  the  ability  to  factor  and  to  solve 
simple  algebraic  equations,  the  class  made  the  request 
that  this  drill  be  furnished.  The  writer  took  five  hours 
extra  time  to  complete  this  project.  Another  class 
found  in  a  second  grade  that  its  game  of  bean-bag  was 
being  retarded  because  of  lack  of  accuracy  and  speed 
in  the  addition  of  simple  numbers.  A  project  im- 
mediately developed  out  of  this  situation,  having  for 
its  aim  the  development  of  speed  and  accuracy  in  the 
addition  of  simple  number  combinations. 

Both  these  projects  in  drill  illustrate  how  projects 
may  arise  that  are  primarily  concerned  with  skills 
and  habits.  These  represent  problems  which  arose  in 
their  natural  setting  and  were  carried  over  into  action 
by  developing  the  habits  and  skills. 

It  seems  indisputable  that  the  drills  and  exercises  in 
habit-formation  will  be  undertaken  with  more  zeal  if 
first  introduced  through  a  project  than  if  merely  set 


IMPLICATIONS  OF  THE  PROJECT   METHOD      131 

up  as  tasks  to  be  done  quite  apart  from  any  problem ; 
the  pupil  sees  the  reason  for  the  drill. 

The  weakness  of  the  project  in  making  provision  for 
drills  and  exercises  in  habit-formation  is  a  real  one. 
The  difficulty  lies  in  providing  for  a  sufficient  number 
of  projects  which  have  as  one  of  their  outcomes  the 
habit  or  skill  which  should  be  developed.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  often  difficult  to  bring  to  the  learner 
the  need  for  the  habit  or  skill.  To  the  extent,  however, 
that  the  learner  feels  or  realizes  the  need  for  the  habits 
and  skills,  to  that  extent  he  will  put  forth  more  vigor- 
ous activity  and  effort  to  accomplish  the  task.  The 
attempt  to  minimize  the  importance  of  skills  and 
habits  does  not  answer  the  problem.  To  be  accepted 
widely,  the  project  method  must  make  provision  in  the 
selection  of  projects  to  be  pursued  for  the  development 
of  skills  and  habits.  It  must  be  supplemented  by  a 
systematic  review  of  the  facts  learned  in  the  project 
setting. 

IV.  THE  PROJECT  AND  ACTION 

The  technique  of  carrying  an  act  to  completion  needs 
to  be  taught  as  well  as  the  theory,  for  the  process  of 
carrying  out  a  problem  to  completion  is  as  difficult  as 
the  learning  of  the  theory. 

This  value  of  the  project  in  developing  the  technique 
of  action  is  well  summarized  by  Charters : 

"The  acquisition  of  skill  in  carrying  out  processes  in 
actual  practice  is  an  advantage  claimed.  After  the 


132        THE  PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

student  has  learned  fruit  canning  or  bread  making  or 
hat  designing  in  school  as  a  project  she  is  able  to  can 
fruit,  make  bread,  and  design  hats  at  home.  She  does 
not  know  mere  theory ;  she  has  learned  the  method  of 
performance.  The  advocates  of  the  project  method 
assert  that  after  the  theory  is  learned  there  is  a  wide 
zone  of  danger  in  carrying  out  the  solution,  a  zone  full 
of  difficulties  which  may  ruin  the  effectiveness  of  the 
performance.  They  point  to  the  fact  that  some  stu- 
dents of  home  economics  whose  mastery  of  the  theories 
is  conceded  by  the  most  critical,  are  very  inefficient 
home  makers.  These  advocates  explain  this  by  saying 
that  the  performance  of  the  act  itself  involves  a  very 
important  technique  which  needs  as  careful  attention 
as  does  the  solution  of  the  theoretical  problems  or 
multi-problems.  Nor  can  it  be  any  more  safely  left 
to  chance,  they  say,  in  the  expectation  that  the  student 
will  pick  it  up  for  herself  at  some  future  time  than  can 
the  learning  of  the  theory.  It  is  essential  to  a  success- 
ful hold  upon  the  subject."  1 

The  theory  underlying  the  preparation  and  serving 
of  a  breakfast  may  have  been  learned  thoroughly  by 
the  girl  in  household  science.  She  knows  the  method 
of  making  coffee,  preparing  fruit,  cereals,  toast,  and 
eggs.  She  has  learned  the  proper  method  of  setting 
the  table,  and  the  rules  for  serving.  In  the  laboratory 
she  has  carried  out  each  of  these  small  exercises  with 
success  and  could  recite  thoroughly  upon  the  principles 
underlying  each. 

1  Charters,  W.  W.,  "The  Project  in  Home  Economics,"  Journal  of 
Home  Economics,  Vol.  10,  p.  118,  March,  1918. 


IMPLICATIONS   OF  THE   PROJECT   METHOD      133 

When  she  accepts  the  project  of  preparing  the  break- 
fast, setting  the  table,  and  serving,  there  is  a  technique 
involved  in  trying  to  carry  out  all  these  activities  at 
the  same  time.  Her  problem  would  be  to  use  her  time 
economically  and  yet  not  have  the  eggs,  toast,  or  coffee 
prepared  before  the  cereals  or  the  fruit.  Taking  for 
granted  that  she  would  eat  breakfast  with  the  family, 
her  method  of  procedure  would  be  as  follows :  First, 
she  places  the  teakettle  on  the  stove  and  while  the 
water  is  heating  she  assembles  the  materials  for  the 
breakfast  and  places  the  breakfast  dishes  on  a  tray. 
The  water  being  heated  by  this  time  she  prepares  the 
breakfast  food,  which  usually  requires  stirring  for  four 
or  five  minutes  with  rapid  heat,  and  then  she  places 
the  cereal  in  the  top  of  a  water  bath.  She  then  pre- 
pares the  coffee.  Next  she  puts  the  bread  in  an 
oven  or  in  a  toaster,  drops  eggs  in  boiling  water  for 
poaching,  and  assuming  that  three  to  five  minutes  will 
be  sufficient  to  cook  the  coffee,  eggs,  and  toast,  that 
time  will  be  used  in  setting  the  table. 

This  is  a  real  problem  that  confronts  many  girls  who 
have  completed  a  course  in  household  science.  Some 
of  them  state  that  the  most  difficult  thing  they  had  to 
learn  was  to  be  able  to  have  three  or  four  foods  cooking 
at  the  same  time,  so  started  that  each  will  be  done  at 
the  proper  time.  Much  of  our  teaching  has  usually 
left  this  carrying-out  process  to  the  pupils ;  but  this 
cannot  be  any  more  safely  relegated  to  chance  than 
can  the  learning  of  the  theory. 


134        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

A  statement  by  Mann  commenting  on  the  value  of 
carrying  the  problem  over  into  action  is  significant : 

"  Among  the  professional  engineers  there  is  a  very 
marked  demand  for  what  they  call  '  general  engineer- 
ing science.'  It  is  pointed  out  that  a  man  who  gradu- 
ates from  a  civil  engineering  course  frequently  makes 
his  success  in  life  in  mechanical  engineering  or  vice 
versa.  It  is  also  pointed  out  that  all  engineering  prob- 
lems are  essentially  projects  and  that  many  of  them 
involve  a  wide  knowledge  of  the  different  fields  of 
science.  To  be  a  successful  engineer  thus  involves 
having  the  ability  to  tackle  and  solve  projects  effi- 
ciently and  this  ability  is  acquired  like  every  other 
ability,  by  practice  and  training  in  doing.  It,  there- 
fore, follows  that  the  most  efficient  training  of  engineers 
is  likely  to  be  secured  in  those  schools  in  which  the 
project  method  of  instruction  is  used  most  freely."  1 

It  is  clear  from  this  statement  of  Mann's  that  there 
is  a  special  technique  involved  in  carrying  the  act  to 
completion.  Many  engineers  know  the  theory,  but 
fail  in  making  the  applications.  The  project  offers 
a  means  of  providing  the  training  in  action. 

The  project  method  takes  care  of  the  technique  of 
carrying  out  a  complete  act.  If  the  boy  has  been 
taught  agriculture  by  the  project  method  he  knows 
how  to  do  things.  He  does  not  know  merely  the 
theoretical  phases  of  growing  potatoes ;  he  has  learned 
the  method  of  performance.  The  project  provides  for 

1  Mann,  C.  R.,  "Project  Teaching."  General  Science  Quarterly, 
Vol.  1,  p.  14,  1916. 


IMPLICATIONS   OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD      135 

the  technique  of  the  completion  of  the  act  after  the 
theoretical  problem  has  been  solved. 

V.  SUMMARY 

The  project  creates  interest  of  a  deep-seated  sort 
because  the  interest  comes  from  associative  connec- 
tions of  many  types.  The  project  offers  countless 
reservoirs  from  which  interest  may  be  drawn.  All 
projects  are  not  interesting,  but  if  a  project  is  selected 
so  as  to  be  of  interest,  the  degree  of  the  interest  is 
likely  to  be  very  high,  because  of  its  setting  in  the 
experience  of  the  student.  Of  course,  it  can  be  shown 
that  the  possibilities  of  interest  are  much  greater  than 
in  the  facts  acquired  in  topical  organization.  The 
project  gives  the  ideal  organization  of  subject  matter 
for  arousing  an  aim  and  the  directing  of  thinking.  It 
is  a  plausible  assumption  that  the  thinking  most  worth 
while  to  the  individual  is  that  which  is  directed  by  his 
own  aim  and  not  by  some  one  else,  or  by  an  aim  forced 
upon  him.  If  the  pupil  has  a  specific  goal  which  he 
understands  and  if  he  knows  the  difficulty  which  he 
has  to  solve,  there  is  little  doubt  that  he  will  be  able  to 
select  intelligently  the  material  needed  for  the  solution. 
The  strong  initial  motive  of  the  project,  with  the  con- 
stant side  lights  from  practical  conditions,  chal- 
lenges the  student  to  think  with  a  higher  degree  of 
effectiveness. 

The  importance  of  habit-formation  is  too  important 
to  take  it  for  granted  that  in  using  the  project  method 


136        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

habits  will  be  formed  incidentally.  A  methodology 
which  makes  no  provision  for  these  other  than  in  a 
purely  incidental  way  is  seriously  defective  and  makes 
its  theory  subject  to  serious  criticism.  The  weakness 
of  the  project  in  making  provision  for  drills  and 
exercises  in  habit-formation  is  genuine.  The  attempt 
to  minimize  the  importance  of  skills  and  habits  does 
not  answer  the  problem.  The  project  method,  to  be 
accepted  widely,  must  make  provision  for  skills  and 
habits.  It  must  be  supplemented  by  a  systematic 
presentation,  organization,  review,  and  repetition. 

The  project  method  takes  care  of  the  technique  of 
carrying  out  a  complete  act.  If-  the  boy  has  been 
taught  agriculture  by  the  project  method,  he  knows 
how  to  do  things.  He  has  learned  the  method  of 
performance.  The  project  provides  for  the  technique 
of  the  completion  of  the  act  after  the  theoretical  prob- 
lem has  been  solved.  "  The  acquisition  of  skill  in 
carrying  out  processes  in  actual  practice  "  is  an  ad- 
vantage claimed  for  the  project. 

The  relation  of  the  project  to  the  curriculum  will  be 
taken  up  in  Chapter  VI. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  PROJECT  AND  THE   CURRICULUM 

I.  THE  NEED  FOR  SCIENTIFIC  METHODS  IN  CURRIC- 
ULUM ORGANIZATION 

THIS  is  the  era  of  efficiency  in  educational  procedure, 
for  on  all  sides  there  is  evidence  of  quantitative  and 
qualitative  methods  being  applied  to  the  problems  of 
education.  Guess  work  and  hazy  impressions  are 
being  replaced  by  information  wrought  out  by  scientific 
investigations.  The  results  of  teaching  are  to  a  large 
extent  now  being  measured  by  standardized  tests. 
This  scientific  procedure  has  found  its  way  into  all 
phases  of  school  administration  and  supervision. 

Scientific  methods  applied  to  curriculum  making 
have  just  made  a  beginning.  This  backwardness  is 
due  pretty  largely  to  the  fact  that  the  objectives  of 
teaching  have  not  been  analyzed.  Such  objectives  as 
"  complete  living,"  "  adaptation  of  the  individual  to 
his  environment,"  "  social  efficiency,"  are,  without 
further  analysis,  too  general  to  be  of  any  particular 
help  in  suggesting  materials  which  make  up  the  cur- 
riculum. Since  it  has  been  very  difficult  to  propose  a 
definite  scheme  whereby  these  vague  objectives  might 

137 


138        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

be  realized,  the  tendency  then  has  been  to  fall  back  on 
the  subject  matter,  without  modification,  that  had  been 
in  use. 

II.  PRINCIPLES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  CURRICULUM 

MAKING 

The  general  principles  of  curriculum  making  are 
fairly  simple.  No  matter  what  type  of  occupation 
the  individual  goes  into,  it  will  consist  in  carrying  out 
certain  activities,  in  other  words,  projects.  If  the 
school  through  a  scientifically  organized  curriculum  is 
to  prepare  these  individuals  for  rendering  efficient 
service,  it  must  give  help  to  the  individual  in  carrying 
on  these  activities.  It  follows  that  in  order  to  give 
this  help,  those  responsible  for  making  the  curriculum 
must  know  what  facts,  processes,  principles,  habits, 
skills,  and  ideals  are  necessary  for  the  various  activi- 
ties for  which  the  curriculum  prepares.  Since  the 
occupations  are  so  numerous,  these  smaller  objectives, 
which  the  curriculum  maker  must  consider,  will  be 
far  from  few. 

There  are  at  least  four  bases  for  the  construction  of 
a  curriculum  —  facts,  principles,  processes,  and  proj- 
ects. The  first  three  of  these  are  usually  included  in 
the  type  of  organization  which  is  known  as  the  logi- 
cal or  systematic  arrangement  of  material.  Generally 
speaking,  then,  the  principal  methods  of  curriculum 
making  are  the  logical  and  project  methods. 

The  logical  organization  represents  a  perfected  sys- 


THE   PROJECT   AND   THE    CURRICULUM         139 

tern,  its  materials  are  arranged  in  subdivisions,  topics, 
paragraphs,  according  to  the  demands  made  of  the 
material  from  a  logical  standpoint.  Logical  organiza- 
tion demands  that  the  material  be  put  together  so  that 
there  are  no  omissions  and  so  that  each  topic  can  be 
given  its  relative  place  in  some  sort  of  scheme  pre- 
viously determined. 

If  the  project  is  made  the  basis  for  curriculum 
making,  it  is  necessary  to  decide  what  principles 
should  be  mastered  by  the  students  and  then  select 
projects  or  groups  of  projects  from  which  the  student 
may  select.  The  projects  selected  will  be  such  that  all 
the  facts,  principles,  and  processes  will  be  covered 
which  ordinarily  are  covered  in  the  logical  or  systematic 
presentation.  The  facts,  principles,  and  processes  are 
now  studied  as  the  need  arises  in  carrying  the  projects 
to  completion  and  the  student  realizes  their  functional 
value. 

(a)  A  Curriculum  in  Woodworking  Based  on  Projects 

The  difference  between  the  construction  of  the  cur- 
riculum based  on  principles  or  processes  and  on  projects 
has  been  worked  out  by  L.  R.  Fuller,  Regional  Director 
of  Industrial  Education.  The  systematic  or  logical 
organization  of  a  course  in  woodworking  is  indicated 
and  the  effect  of  the  use  of  the  project  on  this  organiza- 
tion is  shown  by  him.1 

According  to  systematic  organization  in  woodwork 
1  Unpublished  paper. 


140         THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 


the  following  thirty-two  processes  are  involved.  The 
method  of  dealing  with  these  from  the  logical  or  sys- 
tematic point  of  view  would  be  to  give  examples, 
illustrations,  and  drill  on  each  process  until  fairly  well 
mastered  and  then  pass  on  to  the  next  process. 


1.  Planing 

2.  Scoring 

3.  Sawing 

4.  Boring 

5.  Sandpapering 

6.  Scraping 

7.  Bowsawing 

8.  Gauging 

9.  Nailing 

10.  Screwing 

11.  Gluing 


12.  Countersinking  23. 

13.  Spokeshaving  24. 

14.  Chiseling  25. 

15.  Gouging  26. 

16.  Finishing  27. 

17.  Laying  out  28. 

18.  Chamfering  29. 

19.  Beveling  30. 

20.  Modeling  31. 

21.  Carving  32. 

22.  Mortising 


Mitering 

Fitting 

Superposing 

Doweling 

Inlaying 

Assembling 

Dadoing 

Grinding 

Whetting 

Filing 


The  project  method  of  teaching  these  thirty-two 
processes  would  be  to  select  projects  the  carrying  of 
which  to  completion  would  involve  the  processes  indi- 
cated above.  Projects  were  analyzed  by  Fuller  to 
find  out  just  what  processes  would  be  used.  He 
selected  projects  that  involve  the  type  of  repairs  and 
work  needed  in  the  homes.  In  eight  projects,  — 
building  walks,  door,  screen,  floor,  and  furniture 
repairs,  conveniences  for  the  home,  handles  in  tools, 
and  sharpening  tools,  —  he  found  that  all  but  two  of 
the  above  thirty-two  processes  were  represented,  while 
some  processes  as  planing,  scoring,  and  sawing  were 
involved  in  six  of  the  projects.  This  group  of  eight 


THE   PROJECT  AND   THE   CURRICULUM        141 


projects  could  be  selected,  then,  as  the  basis  for  giving 
training  in  at  least  thirty  processes. 


PROCESSES 

TIMES 
USED  IN 
SERIES 

PROJECTS 

PROCESSES  INVOLVED 

1.  Planing        .     . 

8 

Cutting  Board 

1 

2.  Scoring  . 

7 

Hat  Rack 

1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  18 

3.  Sawing   .     .     . 

7 

4.  Boring    .     .     . 

6 

Laundry  Register 

1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  8,  18 

5.  Sandpapering  . 

7 

6.  Scraping 

3 

Coat  Hanger 

1,2,3,4,5,7,13,14,17,20 

7.  Bowsawing 

4 

Knife  and  Fork 

1,2,3,4,5,8,9,17,24,28 

8.  Gauging      .     . 

2 

Box 

9.  Fastening  nails 

2 

Teapot  Block 

1,2,3,5,6,14,16,17,18,27 

10.  Screwing 

2 

11.  Gluing    .     .     . 

3 

Flower  Pot  Stand 

1,2,3,4,5,6,8,10,11,16, 

17,  24,  25,  26,  28,  29 

12.  Counter-sink- 

ing     .     . 

1 

13.  Spokeshaving  . 

3 

14.  Chiseling     .     . 

2 

Table 

1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11, 

15.  Gouging      .     . 

1 

12,13,14,  15,  16,17,22, 

16.  Finishing     .     . 

5 

24,  25,  26,  28,  29 

Filling     .     . 

Tray 

15,  16.  17,  21 

Staining 

Shellacking  . 

5,  6,  13.  17,  20,  24 

Varnishing  . 

Waxing  .     . 

11,  16,  17,  19,23. 

Painting 

17.  Laying  Out 

8 

Hammer  Handle 

18.  Chamfering 

3 

30,  31,  32  , 

19.  Beveling      .     . 

1 

Picture  Frame 

20.  Modeling     .     . 

2 

21.  Carving       .     . 

1 

22.  Mortising    .     . 

1 

23.  Mitering      .     . 

1 

24.  Fitting    .     .     . 

4 

25.  Superposing     . 

2 

26.  Doweling     . 

2 

27.  Inlaying      .     . 

1 

28.  Assembling 

3 

29.  Dadoing      .     . 

2 

30.  Grinding     .     . 

1 

Sharpening 

31.  Whetting     .     . 

1 

Knives,  Forks, 

32.  Filing      .     .     . 

1 

Tools 

142        THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

The  foregoing  table  shows  a  group  of  selected  projects, 
giving  the  number  of  times  each  of  the  processes  has 
been  used  in  the  series  of  projects.  After  each  project, 
the  different  processes  involved  are  indicated.  The 
numbers  to  the  right  of  the  processes  indicate  the 
number  of  times  they  are  employed  in  the  projects 
listed.  Each  is  counted  only  once  to  a  project. 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  the  topical  method  one  would 
teach  these  thirty-two  processes  by  exercises  in  those 
particular  processes.  Teaching  these  processes  by  the 
project  method,  they  are  learned  in  connection  with 
life  situations.  The  functional  value  of  skills  is  realized. 
These  are  problematic  acts  carried  to  completion  in 
their  natural  setting. 

If  we  take  one  of  the  projects,  the  building  of  walks, 
we  find  that  processes  1,  2,  3,  9,  24  of  the  systematic 
outline  are  used,  and  the  project  of  making  a  table 
involves  twenty-two  processes.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  some  of  the  processes  are  used  many  times  in  the 
completion  of  the  group  of  projects.  Since  planing 
and  sawing  require  more  practice  and  are  more  fre- 
quently used  than  some  of  the  other  processes,  it  is 
fair  to  state  that  these  projects  were  selected  with 
the  purpose  of  giving  drill  where  most  necessary. 

(b)  Illustrations  of  Curricula  Based  on  Projects 

An  interesting  reorganization  of  curricula  is  being 
worked  out  by  Professor  H.  M.  Goettsch  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cincinnati.  After  sixteen  weeks'  prelimi- 


THE   PROJECT  AND   THE   CURRICULUM        143 

nary  training  in  elementary  chemistry,  the  freshmen 
are  given  problems  in  industrial  chemistry  on  which 
they  work  for  ten  weeks  from  8  A.M.  to  4 :  30  P.M. 
Thus  the  principles  of  industrial  chemistry  are  devel- 
oped as  needed  in  carrying  the  projects  to  completion. 

"  Projects  such  as  to  '  make  baking  powder  and 
determine  whether  it  is  better  and  cheaper  than  you 
can  buy  '  are  assigned  without  any  instructions  or 
references,  and  the  student  is  required  to  work  out 
his  own  salvation  in  the  library  and  the  laboratory. 
In  the  period  of  ten  weeks  he  completes  a  number  of 
these  projects  covering  a  wide  range  of  topics,  but 
little  effort  is  made  to  present  the  topics  in  logical  or 
any  other  sort  of  orderly  sequence.  Much  emphasis 
is  placed  on  synthetic  work  and  on  the  cost  of  a  given 
product  by  different  processes  ;  while  chemical  analysis 
and  the  ionic  theories  of  matter,  which  usually  occupy 
the  center  of  the  stage  in  chemistry  courses,  here  take 
a  subordinate  place."  l 

The  Sub-Committee  on  General  Science  of  the 
National  Commission  on  the  Reorganization  of  Second- 
ary Education  is  giving  serious  consideration  to  aban- 
doning the  strict  organization  of  sciences  according  to 
their  content  in  the  first  and  second  years  of  the  high 
school.  As  a  substitute,  it  is  proposed  to  teach  the 
facts,  laws,  principles,  and  processes  from  all  the 
sciences  in  connection  with  a  series  of  projects. 

1  Mann,  C.  R.,  "A  Study  of  Engineering  Education."  Bulletin  of 
the  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching,  pp.  61-62, 
1918. 


144        THE  PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

"  According  to  the  plan  proposed  the  project  would 
be  the  basis  of  organization  for  the  scientific  facts  and 
principles  that  were  needed  in  carrying  it  out.  For 
example,  if  the  project  were  the  raising  and  marketing 
of  an  acre  of  potatoes,  the  students  would  study  the 
physics  and  chemistry  of  the  soils  and  fertilizers,  the 
topography  and  drainage  of  the  ground,  the  rainfall 
and  weather  conditions,  the  structure  and  physiology 
of  the  potato  plant,  the  development  of  varieties  by 
breeding,  the  physical  and  chemical  effects  of  tillage, 
the  insect  enemies  and  the  appropriate  insecticides, 
the  bird  enemies  of  the  injurious  insects,  the  cooking 
and  the  food  value  of  the  potato,  the  nature  and  uses 
of  potato  starch,  the  marketing  of  the  potatoes  and  so 


The  student  in  carrying  to  completion  any  of  the 
projects  noted  would  see  and  realize  the  need  for 
accurately  determined  facts.  Because  he  wished  to 
learn  he  would  investigate,  collect  data,  and  form 
judgments.  Facts  would  be  learned  from  the  many 
sciences,  not  in  the  logical  order,  but  in  the  order 
needed  in  completing  the  project. 

The  following  project  will  illustrate  the  method 
by  which  C.  W.  Stone  organized  a  project  so  that 
it  would  cut  across  many  subjects  in  the  curricu- 
lum. This  project  will  illustrate  what  Dewey  calls 
"  facts  not  torn  away  from  their  original  place  and 
experience." 

1  Twiss,  G.  R.,  "Science  Teaching,"  p.  197.  The  Macmillan 
Company,  1917. 


THE   PROJECT  AND   THE   CURRICULUM        145 

Plan  for  Life  Topic  for  Grade  I 

Center  of  Interest :  Seasons,  Spring 

Topic  :  Making  a  Flower  Garden  at  Home 

The  following  outline  shows  the  work  on  this  topic. 
The  subjects  in  which  it  works  out  are  industrial 
arts,  arithmetic,  and  music. 

I.   Learner's  Available  Experience 

1.  All  the  children  have  seen  gardening  done  at 
home. 

2.  Many  of  them  have  had  little  plots  of  their  own 
in  the  big  garden  at  home. 

3.  They  have  had  considerable  experience  in  the 
school  garden  in  preparing  soil  and  the  several  groups 
have  planted  radishes,  lettuce,  cosmos,  petunias,  and 
candytuft.       One     group     planted    nasturtium    seed 
between  the  ivy  plants  around  the  building. 

II.   Teacher's  Main  Aims 

1.  To  teach  to  measure  with  foot  rule. 

2.  To  add  to  their  interest  in  gardening  by  applica- 
tion at  home  of  knowledge  gained  at  school. 

3.  To  get  good  expression,  both  in  language  and  in 
reading. 

4.  To  increase  enjoyment  through  a  story  and  a 
song  which  express  their  own  fresh  experiences. 

III.   Stages  of  Teaching 

1.   Enabling  pupils  to  feel  their  need  of  learning. 
Conversation  in  which  the  children  are  encouraged 
to  tell  of  their  little  gardens  at  home,  and  of  their 


146        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

work  in  the  school  garden.  Proposal  to  give  them 
seed  to  plant  gardens  of  nasturtiums  at  home.  How 
shall  the  garden  be  made  in  order  to  have  beautiful 
nasturtiums  ?  (Pupils'  aim  :  To  make  gardens  of  their 
own  and  raise  beautiful  nasturtiums.) 

2.  Enabling  pupils  to  acquire  knowledge  to  satisfy 
their  felt  needs. 

Industrial  work. 

Conversation  on  how  to  plant  their  seed,  turning 
on  the  importance  of  not  crowding  plants.  Making 
of  rules  for  measuring  home  gardens.  (Good  seat 
work.) 

Arithmetic. 

How  far  apart  shall  we  plant  the  seeds?  Approxi- 
mate space  decided  on.  Lessons  with  foot  rulers  teach- 
ing how  to  measure  the  exact  distance  between  seeds. 

Literature. 

Story  of  Marjorie's  garden  to  increase  interest  and 
add  to  knowledge  by  learning  how  Marjorie  managed 
her  garden. 

Music. 

The  motion  song :  "  In  My  Little  Garden  Bed." 

3.  (a)  Testing  results. 

For  Industrial  Work  and  Arithmetic :  Have  the 
children  measure  an  imaginary  garden  on  the  floor, 
placing  small  articles  as  bits  of  chalk  for  seed. 

For  English :  Thinking  for  themselves  and  deciding 
whether  they  can  read  the  stories. 

For  Literature :  Retelling  the  story  in  class  to  see 
whether  they  are  ready  to  tell  it  for  the  enjoyment  of 
the  others. 

For  Music :  Singing  in  class  to  see  whether  they 
know  the  song  well  enough  to  sing  for  the  enjoyment  of 
the  other  section,  at  home,  etc. 


THE   PROJECT  AND   THE   CURRICULUM        147 

(6)  Applying  Results. 

For  Industrial  Work  and  Arithmetic :  Making  the 
garden  at  home. 

For  English  :  Reading  the  '  stories  '  to  each  other. 

For  Literature :  Telling  the  story  to  the  other  sec- 
tion, at  home,  etc. 

For  Music :  Singing  for  the  other  section,  at  home, 
etc.1 

(c)  Two  Plans  for  the  Organization  of  Subject  Matter  in 
the  Curriculum 

Another  example  taken  from  the  field  of  industrial 
education  shows  how  the  project  cuts  across  many 
of  the  subjects  of  the  curriculum,  in  other  words,  how 
it  destroys  the  logical  order  of  organization.  This 
method  is  described  by  C.  R.  Allen.2 

As  suggested  by  Allen  there  are  two  plans  for  the 
organization  of  subject  matter  in  the  curriculum.  The 
one  is  the  method  by  independent  subjects  and  the 
other  the  scheme  of  major  and  minor  subjects.  These 
two  plans  have  been  recognized. 

The  former  method  has  selected  the  desirable  sub- 
jects to  be  taught  in  the  curriculum  and  has  made 
plans  for  their  development  independently.  The  vari- 
ous subjects  in  the  high  school  curriculum  have  been 
treated  as  separate  units,  with  little  provision  made 
for  connecting  the  different  subjects.  History  is 

1  Stone,  C.  W.    Outline  sent  to  the  writer. 

'Allen,  C.  R.,  "The  Project  Method  and  the  Combination  of  the 
Project  Method  with  the  Phase  System."  Massachusetts  Board  of 
Education,  Bulletin  75,  pp.  40-47. 


148 


THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 


taught  chronologically,  but  is  not  connected  with 
civics.  Mathematics  is  taken  up  according  to  the 
logical  arrangement  of  the  textbook  and  often  does 
not  relate  to  drawing,  to  physics,  or  to  chemistry. 
Allen  illustrates  this  scheme  by  the  following  diagram  : 

History  English  Mathematics         Civics  Drawing 


The  line  AB  may  represent  the  particular  items  of 
knowledge  learned  by  the  pupils  on  a  given  day  by  the 
independent  organization.  It  is  quite  improbable  that 
the  knowledge  learned  in  mathematics  will  have  any 
relation  to  the  drawing,  to  the  English,  or  to  history. 
"  It  is  very  improbable,  for  example,  that  if  his  history 
lesson  deals  with  the  method  of  administering  justice 
in  England  in  the  Middle  Ages  that  his  civics  lesson 
at  the  same  time  will  deal  with  the  modern  method  of 
court  procedure  which  is  derived  from  the  old  English 
procedure ;  that  if  his  civics  lesson  deals  with  a  ques- 
tion of  community  planning,  his  drawing  lesson  will 
in  any  way  involve,  for  example,  the  laying  out  of  a 
park  plan  on  paper." 

It  would  be  advantageous  if  the  independent  courses 
could  be  so  arranged  that  the  different  lessons  learned 
on  the  same  day  could  center  around  the  same  problem 
or  idea.  Under  the  independent  scheme  of  organiza- 


THE  PROJECT  AND  THE  CURRICULUM 


149 


tion,  the  boy  in  the  shop  finds  it  practically  impossible 
to  secure  technical  information  in  the  different  subjects 
at  the  time  he  needs  it.  In  the  drawing  job  he  needs 
the  assistance  of  certain  formulae  for  the  particular 
job,  in  the  history  of  the  trade,  how  the  operation  was 
performed  a  hundred  years  ago.  Under  the  arrange- 
ment by  independent  subjects  he  may  get  some  of  this 
information  next  week  or  perhaps  he  had  some  of  it 
so  long  ago  that  he  has  forgotten  it. 

If  the  subject  matter  of  the  different  subjects  could 
be  taken  up  at  the  time  when  it  was  needed  in  connec- 
tion with  some  particular  job,  the  students  would 
realize  its  functional  value.  The  correlation  in  such 
a  case  would  be 
excellent. 

In  contrast  with 
the  method  of  inde- 
pendent subjects, 
the  "  major  and 

minor     subject "    ^ 

scheme  is  based 
upon  the  idea  of 
selecting  some  one 
subject  considered 
to  be  of  primary 
importance,  sub- 
ordinating the  other  subjects  to  that  '  major  subject.' 
In  the  illustration,  the  requirements  of  the  shop  work 
will  determine  the  order  of  all  other  lines  of  instruction. 


B 


150        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

"  In  such  an  organization  when  the  boy  has  the 
turning  of  a  taper  in  the  machine  shop,  he  gets  at  that 
time,  in  his  materials  of  trade,  the  study  of  the  problem 
of  the  selection  of  proper  stock ;  in  his  mathematics, 
the  figuring  of  the  offset ;  and  in  his  history  of  trade, 
the  information  as  to  how  they  got  a  taper  before  they 
had  a  lathe.  Under  this  method  the  only  line  of  work 
which  would  show  logical  progression  would  be  the 
shop  work.  If  we  were  to  take  the  materials  of  trade, 
the  mathematics  or  the  history,  and  should  arrange 
those  topics  as  they  might  come  to  the  boy,  they 
would  offer  an  entirely  disconnected  series,  the  only 
progressive  subject  being  his  shop  experience.  This 
scheme  is  indicated  in  the  diagram,  where  the  line  AB 
would  indicate  the  progress  of  the  boy  in  the  shop 
work,  the  line  CD  would  indicate  the  point  where  he 
had  reached  the  problem  of  turning  a  taper,  and  the 
various  arrows  pointing  to  that  particular  point  would 
indicate  the  parts  of  such  subjects  as  materials  of  trade, 
mathematics,  etc.,  which  bear  upon  that  particular 
problem. 

"  Since  the  above  method  of  instruction  is  based 
upon  the  idea  of  selecting  the  most  important  subject 
and  subordinating  all  other  subjects  to  that,  it  obviously 
affords  opportunity  for  a  much  closer  correlation  than 
the  first  scheme.  It  is  much  more  likely  to  meet  the 
condition  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  average  pupil's 
progress,  where  the  dominant  subject  is  unquestion- 
ably shop  experience.  In  suggesting  this  method  for 
use  in  the  vocational  schools,  there  has  simply  been 
recommended  the  plan  which  has  been  always  recog- 
nized as  the  more  efficient  of  the  two."  l 

1  Allen,  C.  R.,  "The  Project  Method  and  the  Combination  of  the 
Project  Method  with  the  Phase  System."  Massachusetts  Board  of 
Education,  Bulletin  75,  pp.  40-45. 


THE   PROJECT  AND   THE   CURRICULUM        151 

The  main  reason  which  the  writer  gives  for  this 
method  is  that  in  an  industrial  school  it  teaches  the 
student  to  know  how  to  perform  the  processes  necessary 
to  carry  on  his  trade  and  insures  that  he  will  be  paid 
for  what  he  can  do.  If  the  primary  aim  were  to  impart 
information,  the  method  of  independent  subjects  might 
be  used  effectively. 

The  writer  indicates  which  of  these  two  methods  is 
named  the  project.  "  To  experiences  in  a  major  sub- 
ject, around  which  are  grouped  the  fragments  of  minor 
related  subjects  that  apply,  we  have  given  the  name 
1  project/  and  the  method  of  instruction  based  upon  a 
series  of  such  projects  we  have  called  the  '  project 
method.'  " 

The  educational  use  of  the  project,  according  to 
this  writer,  "  implies  that  in  connection  with  the  dis- 
charge of  a  responsibility,  problems  must  be  solved, 
the  solution  of  which  involves  an  educational  experience, 
and  that  there  is  a  problem  in  some  major  subject  of 
instruction,  the  solution  of  which  requires  the  student 
to  acquire  and  apply  fragments  of  minor  subjects. 
According  to  the  aim  of  the  course  of  instruction,  the 
portion  of  the  major  subject,  or  '  core  '  of  the  project, 
may  lie  in  any  field  of  instruction.  For  example,  the 
major  subject  might  lie  in  the  field  of  English  compo- 
sition. In  writing  a  composition  the  pupil  must  write, 
spell,  apply  grammatical  rules,  use  figures  of  speech, 
and  in  general,  apply  to  that  particular  problem 
(writing  the  composition)  fragments  drawn  from  the 
fields  covered  by  the  subjects  commonly  taught  under 
the  names  of  '  spelling  '  '  penmanship  '  '  English  gram- 


152        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

mar/  and  (  rhetoric.'  In  a  similar  way,  projects  might 
be  organized  around  a  '  core  '  taken  from  the  field  of 
history  or  mathematics  or  civics."  l 

III.  PROJECTS  NEED  Nor  CUT  ACROSS  SUBJECTS  OP 
THE  CURRICULUM 

These  examples  might  seem  to  convey  the  idea  that 
for  complete  success  with  the  project  method,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  have  it  cut  across  two  or  more  subjects 
of  the  curriculum.  This  is  not  a  necessary  inference, 
nor  is  this  cutting  across  many  subjects  of  the  curricu- 
lum a  necessary  element  in  the  efficiency  of  the  proj- 
ect method.  It  is  true  that  the  projects  may  be  so 
selected  as  to  include  two  or  more  subjects  of  the 
curriculum,  but  it  is  likewise  true  that  the  work  can 
be  made  just  as  effective  if  the  project  is  kept  within 
the  limit  of  a  given  subject.  The  installation  of  a 
bell  system  in  the  home  falls  within  the  field  of  physics. 
Testing  the  baking  powder  for  the  home  falls  within 
the  field  of  chemistry.  The  preparation  of  the  meals 
at  home  or  canning  fruit  falls  within  the  field  of  home 
economics. 

IV.  OBSOLETE  MATERIAL  IN  SCHOOL  CURRICULA 

The  criticism  of  schools  and  school  curricula  for  their 
failure  to  give  instruction  which  is  practical,  instruc- 
tion along  project  lines,  is  due  in  large  measure  to  the 

1  Allen,  C.  R.,  "  The  Project  Method  and  the  Combination  of  the 
Project  Method  with  the  Phase  System."  Massachusetts  Board  of 
Education,  Bulletin  75,  pp.  44-45. 


THE   PROJECT  AND   THE   CURRICULUM        153 

fact  that  we  rarely  eliminate  from  our  textbooks  but 
are  constantly  adding.  It  takes  a  long  time  to  elimi- 
nate from  the  textbooks  and  courses  of  study  operations 
and  materials  which  have  become  obsolete.  This 
situation  is  due  in  part  to  the  lack  of  an  opportunity 
to  use  the  material  of  the  curriculum  in  solving  diffi- 
culties arising  in  their  natural  setting,  in  the  pupil's 
home  and  school  life.  The  project  method  eliminates 
obsolete  material  for  it  uses  only  such  subject  matter 
as  is  necessary  for  the  solution  of  the  project.1 

V.  THE  PROJECT  AS  THE  BASIS  FOR  CURRICULUM 
ORGANIZATION 

If  the  projects  which  the  farmer  is  called  upon  to 
carry  out  in  his  work  were  carefully  classified  and  the 
data  selected  from  a  large  number  representing  different 
localities,  this  series  of  projects,  with  the  principles 
which  they  define  and  illustrate,  would  be  a  most 
effective  basis  for  use  in  the  organization  of  the  cur- 
riculum in  agriculture.  It  would  be  possible,  although 
difficult,  to  collect  a  large  number  of  life-projects  in 
the  various  occupations,  industries,  and  professions. 

1  "  This  shortcoming  may  be  laid  at  the  door  of  that  false  conception 
of  the  object  of  education  as  mere  knowledge.  Such  a  conception  de- 
feats its  own  end,  as  knowledge  is  defined  as  past  experience  organized 
to  meet  the  demands  and  problems  of  new  experience.  Instruction  is 
not  complete  until  application  of  facts  learned  has  been  made  and  their 
usefulness  demonstrated  by  the  solution  of  problems  of  a  practical 
character  which  develop  out  of  the  study  itself  and  which  possess  a 
powerful  appeal  to  the  pupil."  —  Yearbook  of  Francis  W.  Parker 
School,  Vol.  4,  p.  5. 


154        THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

If  these  projects  were  national  in  their  scope,  the 
materials  used  in  carrying  them  to  completion  would 
form  a  partial  basis  for  the  curriculum.  There  is 
serious  difficulty  in  trying  to  organize  a  curriculum 
based  entirely  upon  the  material  from  this  source. 
Great  care  would  have  to  be  taken  in  the  completeness 
of  the  selection  of  the  projects ;  the  principles  under- 
lying them  would  have  to  be  denned ;  and,  again,  a 
course  of  study  based  entirely  on  this  idea  might  be 
subject  to  the  criticism  that  we  are  training  the  stu- 
dents to  meet  situations  which,  in  all  probability,  will 
no  longer  exist  when  they  are  ready  to  use  this  material. 
This  method  of  building  up  the  curriculum  in  agri- 
culture is  clearly  presented  by  Bobbitt. 

"  The  curriculum-discoverer  wishes,  for  example,  to 
draw  up  a  course  of  training  in  agriculture.  He  will 
go  out  into  the  practical  world  of  agriculture  as  the 
only  place  that  can  reveal  the  objectives  of  agricultural 
education.  He  will  start  out  without  prejudgment  as 
to  the  specific  objectives.  All  that  he  needs  for  the 
work  is  pencil,  notebook,  and  a  discerning  intelligence. 
He  will  observe  the  work  of  the  farmers ;  he  will  talk 
with  them  about  all  aspects  of  their  work ;  and  he  will 
read  reliable  accounts  which  give  insight  into  their 
activities.  From  these  sources  he  will  discover  the 
particular  things  that  the  farmers  do  in  carrying  on 
each  piece  of  work ;  the  specific  knowledge  which  the 
farmers  employ  in  planning  and  performing  each 
specific  task ;  the  kinds  of  judgment  at  which  they 
must  arrive ;  the  types  of  problems  they  must  solve ; 
the  habits  and  skills  demanded  by  the  state ;  the 


THE   PROJECT  AND   THE   CURRICULUM         155 

attitudes  of  mind,  appreciations,  valuations,  ambitions, 
and  desires,  which  motivate  and  exercise  general 
control."  x 

If  this  method  of  curriculum  organization  be  used,  — 
that  is,  a  compilation  of  the  life  projects  in  that  field,  — 
it  will  be  well  to  supplement  it  with  a  systematic 
organization.  The  systematic  or  logical  point  of  view 
will  give  the  learner  more  cues  to  aid  him  in  solving  a 
new  problem.  Principles  will  not  be  tied  up  in  a 
few  concrete  examples.2 

Though  there  are  many  practical  difficulties  seen  in 
attempting  to  use  this  method  as  the  basis  for  cur- 
riculum organization  and  construction,  and  while  few 
of  even  the  most  enthusiastic  advocates  would  recom- 

1  Bobbitt,  F.,  "  The  Curriculum,"  pp.  48,  49. 

2  The  necessity  of  giving  a  systematic  view  or  a  complete  concep- 
tion of  the  subject,  when  using  the  project  method  in  chemistry,  is 
emphasized  by  Mann.     "  For  a  series  of  interesting  projects  that  does 
not  eventually  compel  the  student  to  work  out  a  fairly  complete  con- 
ception of  the  large  theories  and  the  important  principles  of  chemistry 
is  obviously  inadequate,  no  matter  how  enthusiastic  the  students  are 
at  work.     On  the  other  hand,  although  the  suggestion  that  an  effective 
course  can  be  constructed  as  a  series  of  apparently  disconnected  proj- 
ects comes  as  a  shock  to  those  who  have  grown  up  with  logically  rigor- 
ous courses,  the  value  of  the  enthusiasm  engendered  by  well-chosen 
projects  must  not  be  overlooked.     Our  most  valuable  information  and 
training  come  from  working  out  projects  that  are  really  worth  while ; 
and  if  this  method  works  in  life,  why  not  in  school?     Especially  since 
in  educational  institutions  it  is  always  possible  to  organize  significant 
projects  into  a  connected  series  that  leaves  a  well-developed  concep- 
tion of  the  whole  subject  in  the  student's  mind."    — Mann,  C.  R.,  "A 
Study  of  Engineering  Education."     The  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the 
Advancement  of  Teaching,  p.  62,  1918. 


156        THE  PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

mend  that  it  be  used  as  the  only  method  in  determining 
minimal  essentials  of  subject  matter,  yet  there  is  no 
excuse  for  not  collecting  these  data  as  widely  as  possible 
and  using  them  for  what  they  are  worth.  No  one 
can  doubt  that  it  will  be  valuable  for  the  project  to 
become  "  the  center  of  logical  organization  for  the 
information  gained,  just  as  it  does  in  the  case  of  the 
problems  worked  out  by  the  farmer,  the  mechanic,  the 
municipal  engineer,  the  industrial  manager,  or  the 
intelligent  home  keeper,  who  brings  results  to  pass  in 
the  world  of  adult  activity.  Time  may  be  and  should 
be  taken,  at  intervals,  to  organize  the  information 
gained  in  working  out  the  projects,  in  accordance  with 
the  reference  book  or  a  compendium  type  of  arrange- 
ment ;  and  this  work  of  organization  may  constitute 
a  series  of  projects  in  themselves  which  will  arouse 
much  interest,  if  skillfully  handled."  1 

VI.   SUMMARY 

The  method  of  organizing  the  curriculum  on  the 
basis  of  the  project  method  is  well  summarized  by 
Charters. 

"  If  the  project  is  to  be  made  the  basis  of  the  cur- 
riculum, it  is  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  decide  as 
scientifically  as  possible  what  principles  and  processes 
should  be  mastered  by  the  student  and  then  to  select 
not  single  projects  but  groups  of  projects  so  arranged 

1  Twiss,  G.  R.,  "Science  Teaching,"  p.  423.  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1917. 


THE   PROJECT  AND  THE   CURRICULUM        157 

that  election  of  projects  is  made  possible  with  the 
certainty  that  all  essential  facts,  processes,  and  prin- 
ciples will  be  covered.  Then,  when  the  principles 
and  processes  have  been  covered  by  the  project 
method  in  class,  enough  time  should  be  left  in  the 
course  so  that  the  subject  matter  may  be  systematized. 
First,  the  project  is  used  for  the  approach  to  all  parts 
of  the  subject,  and  then  a  systematizing  study  of  the 
field  follows  as  an  extended  summary."  1 

1  Charters,  W.  W.,  "The  Project  in  Home  Economics  Teaching," 
Journal  of  Home  Economics,  Vol.  10,  p.  117,  March,  1918. 


CHAPTER  VII 
APPLICATION  OF  THE  PROJECT  IDEA 

IN  Chapter  III  it  was  stated  that  while  the  term 
project  has  been  but  recently  added  to  our  educational 
terminology,  the  idea  behind  the  term  has  been  used 
with  some  modification  in  many  subjects,  such  as 
engineering,  medicine,  law,  journalism,  salesmanship, 
and  foreign  language  teaching.  The  uses  which  these 
different  subjects  have  made  of  the  project  idea  will 
be  discussed  in  this  chapter. 

I.     ENGINEERING.1 

An  attempt  to  approximate  the  project  idea  has  been 
back  of  some  of  the  methods  in  engineering  education 
since  the  foundation  of  the  first  engineering  school  in 
America,  the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute  founded 
in  1824.  The  Rensselaer  school  was  not  able  at  first 
to  own  its  own  shops,  but  the  founder  directed  - 

"  that  with  the  consent  of  the  proprietors,  a  number  of 
well-cultivated  farms  and  workshops  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  school  be  entered  on  the  records  of  the  school  as 

1  Mann,  C.  R.,  "A  Study  of  Engineering  Education."  Bulletin  of 
the  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching,  1918. 
(This  report  gives  in  detail  the  methods  of  teaching  Engineering  and 
the  use  of  the  project  method.) 

158 


APPLICATION   OF  THE   PROJECT   IDEA          159 

places  of  scholastic  exercises  for  the  students,  where 
the  application  of  the  sciences  may  be  most  conveniently 
taught." 

The  first  curriculum  at  Rensselaer  required  for  com- 
pletion one  year,  divided  into  three  terms.  The 
students  began  with  an  "  experimental  term,"  gather- 
ing specimens  and  visiting  shops  and  factories  near  the 
school,  later  discussing  in  class  the  information  ob- 
tained. In  the  last  nine  weeks  of  the  year  the  students 
applied  their  knowledge  to  practical  projects  in  the 
local  engineering  shops.  Mann's  description  is  in- 
teresting : 

"  The  students  are  required  in  the  first  three  weeks 
of  the  first  term  to  examine  the  operations  of  artists 
and  manufacturers  at  the  school  workshops  under  the 
direction  of  a  professor  or  assistant,  who  shall  explain 
the  scientific  principles  upon  which  such  operations 
depend,  four  hours  on  each  of  six  days  in  every  week. 
This  plan  is  identical  in  principle  with  that  now  in 
use  at  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  at  Yale.  There 
the  students  spend  their  whole  time  for  three  weeks 
before  the  opening  of  the  second  year  in  a  well-organized 
course  of  this  sort  called  '  mechanical  technology.' 
The  boys  do  no  actual  manual  work  in  shops.  The 
purpose  of  the  course  as  stated  in  the  catalogue  is, 
'  to  acquaint  the  student  with  the  terms  and  processes 
in  use  in  manufacturing  and  power  plants,  and  to  give 
him  some  personal  contact  with  engineering  work 
before  taking  up  his  studies  in  the  classroom  and  the 
drafting  room.' ' 


160        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

Both  of  these  methods  illustrate  the  effort  made 
to  raise  the  problem  in  its  natural  setting.  The 
students  see  the  commercial  operations  in  their  natural 
setting  and  to  that  extent  the  procedure  approaches 
the  idea  of  the  project.  The  exercises  are  not  true 
projects  because  the  students  did  not  carry  out  any  of 
the  processes ;  they  did  not  acquire  any  manual  skill, 
nor  were  principles  developed  as  needed  in  carrying 
any  of  the  processes  to  completion. 

Another  method  of  handling  the  shop  problem  is 
illustrated  at  the  Worcester  Polytechnic  Institute. 
There  on  the  campus  is  established  a  small  manu- 
facturing plant  where  twenty  journeymen  are  regularly 
employed  and  articles  made  for  the  open  market. 
The  students  work  side  by  side  with  the  journeymen, 
but  are  relieved  by  them  of  much  of  the  monotonous 
repetition.  Apparently  the  students  are  not  kept  at 
a  process  longer  than  is  necessary  to  obtain  a  fair 
mastery.  In  addition  to  this,  the  students  are  given 
thorough  training  in  scientific  shop  management. 

This  method  illustrates  the  project  method.  The 
only  place  at  which  it  seems  to  fall  short  is  in  the  lack 
of  this  small  plant's  facilities  to  present  real  typical 
manufacturing  projects,  although  the  students  un- 
doubtedly receive  excellent  training  in  the  few  processes 
required  for  the  business  of  this  particular  shop.  A 
plant  of  this  sort  will  necessarily  be  small  and  will  not 
be  so  well  equipped  as  are  the  regular  commercial 
plants ;  consequently  the  projects  will  not  be  quite 


APPLICATION   OF  THE   PROJECT  IDEA         161 

typical.  The  Worcester  plan  gives  training  in  the 
principles  and  processes  of  engineering  under  industrial 
conditions.1 

Another  interesting  approach  to  the  project  method 
is  carried  out  in  connection  with  the  shop  work  in 
the  engineering  college  at  the  University  of  Illinois. 
The  production  of  a  salable  article  is  regarded  as  an 
essential  part  of  the  shop  training.  The  manufacturing 
of  a  two-cylinder  gasoline  engine  was  the  first  project 
undertaken.  Plans  of  operation  by  the  most  efficient 
methods,  within  limits,  were  developed.  The  whole 
idea  was  to  present  to  the  students  a  progressive  shop 
with  a  corresponding  progressive  policy. 

This  phase  of  the  work  is  commented  on  by  Benedict : 

"  The  scope  of  the  mechanical  organization  was  the 
same  as  in  commercial  shop  practice  when  similar 
results  were  sought,  and  it  may  fairly  be  said  that  in 
respect  to  methods  and  facilities  the  shop  laboratories 
are  on  an  equal  plane  of  efficiency  with  any  well  or- 
ganized industrial  plant  engaged  in  manufacturing 
similar  products."  2 

While  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  mechanical  facilities 
for  production,  yet  the  main  training  which  this  ex- 

1  "  The  manufacturing  shop  is  a  working  model  for  the  study  of  the 
technique  of  business  and  of  practice.  The  productive  nature  of  the 
work  and  the  objective  test  of  its  salability  are  two  of  its  important 
characteristics  that  tend  to  make  the  experience  significant."  Mann, 
C.  R.,  "A  Study  of  Engineering  Education,"  p.  76. 

1  Benedict,  B.  W.,  "  Shop  Instruction  at  the  University  of  Illinois.'1 
Bulletin,  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Engineering  Education,  Vol.  6, 
p.  239,  December,  1915. 


162        THE  PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

periment  seeks  is  that  of  demonstrating  the  principles 
underlying  modern  commercial  methods  of  manu- 
facturing. Each  student  or  group  of  students  has  a 
different  r61e  to  play,  so  that  by  the  end  of  the  year, 
all  have  had  experience  in  every  phase  of  production 
and  manufacturing.  The  experiment  has  many  of 
the  project  elements.  There  is  an  effort  made  to  have 
the  work  developed  in  a  natural  setting,  for  one  of 
the  conditions  stated  by  Benedict  is  that  the  shop 
laboratories  must  be  "  true  to  life  "  ;  i.e.,  correspond 
in  all  essentials  of  methods  and  equipment  to  com- 
mercial plants  of  recognized  merit.  Although  this 
is  a  very  effective  laboratory  method,  it  does  not 
illustrate  a  true  project.  Principles  are  not  developed 
by  the  students  as  needed,  for,  in  a  large  measure,  the 
students  merely  follow  directions. 

The  method  used  in  the  University  of  Illinois  and 
its  relation  to  the  project  is  well  summarized  by  Mann. 

"  In  this  Illinois  plan  construction  is  still  an  integral 
part  of  instruction ;  but  the  omission  of  the  journey- 
man mechanics  shifts  the  emphasis  from  actual  com- 
mercial production,  subject  to  the  objective  test  of 
salability  in  the  open  market,  to  instruction  about 
methods  of  commercial  production.  The  shop  be- 
comes a  '  shop  laboratory '  and  the  manipulations 
there  partake  of  the  nature  of  experiments  designed 
to  verify  the  principles  of  production  that  are  operative 
in  the  industrial  world,  rather  than  to  solve  problems 
that  arise  in  connection  with  their  productive  activities. 
As  in  most  current  laboratory  work,  the  chief  problem 


APPLICATION  OF  THE   PROJECT   IDEA         163 

for  the  student  is  likely  to  be  that  of  following  di- 
rections intelligently,  rather  than  that  of  finding  the 
answers  to  questions  that  cannot  be  answered  without 
making  laboratory  tests."  l 

The  most  elaborate  attempt  to  institute  the  natural 
setting  for  engineering  problems  has  been  developed 
by  Schneider  at  the  University  of  Cincinnati.  It  is 
known  as  the  "  cooperative  system "  of  education. 
The  development  of  this  system  was  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  old  apprenticeship  system  had  broken  down 
under  the  strain  of  the  varied  commercial  demands 
and  that  the  colleges  of  engineering  were  making  little 
effort  to  connect  theory  and  practice.  The  colleges 
that  were  attempting  to  give  practice  were  maintaining 
their  own  shops  and  plants  at  a  tremendous  expense. 
It  became  apparent  that  to  try  to  keep  up  with  il- 
lustrative shops  would  be  out  of  the  question.  To 
Professor  Schneider  belongs  the  credit  for  planning 
a  course  which  could  use  the  established  manufacturing 
plants  for  the  practical  training,  thereby  allowing  the 
University  of  Cincinnati  to  devote  its  energies  to  the 
theoretical. 

The  course  outlined  by  Professor  Schneider  in  en- 
gineering covers  five  years  of  eleven  months  each. 
The  work  is  alternated  so  that  the  students  may  spend 
two  weeks  out  of  four  in  the  University  and  two  weeks 
in  the  cooperating  manufacturing  plants.  There  are 
two  shifts  of  students,  so  that  while  one  group  is  in 
1  Mann,  C.  R.,  "A  Study  of  Engineering  Education,"  p.  77. 


164        THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

the  University  the  other  is  in  the  plants.  The  practical 
work  is  carried  on  continuously.  The  cooperating 
firms  represent  every  important  phase  of  engineering, 
and  the  work  is  so  arranged  that  the  student  will 
be  able  to  get  practical  training  in  all  phases  of  his 
specialty.  In  railway  engineering  he  will  work  out 
problems  in  connection  with  a  real  railroad.  The  work 
of  the  course  is  outlined  so  that  there  is  constant  cor- 
relation between  the  work  done  in  the  plants  and  that 
done  in  the  University.  The  practical  projects  under- 
taken determine  the  subject  matter  to  be  taught  in  the 
period  spent  in  the  classroom. 

There  seems  to  be  heightened  interest  in  both  the 
practical  and  theoretical  work.  The  wages  earned  by 
the  students  in  the  cooperative  plants  give  an  added 
incentive.  The  scheme  has  had  a  wholesome  influence 
on  the  curriculum  as  a  whole  and  on  the  subject  matter 
of  the  different  courses.  Descriptive  material  that  has 
no  apparent  place  is  eliminated  and  the  additional 
time  is  spent  in  drilling  on  fundamentals. 

The  feature  of  the  cooperative  education  which  is 
the  most  important  from  the  school  standpoint  is  the 
"  realization  of  theory  through  its  practical  applica- 
tion." The  practical  work,  carried  on  in  the  coopera- 
tive factories,  creates  for  the  students  problems  which 
demand  solution.  The  cooperative  course  is  so  graded 
that  no  task  is  undertaken  which  is  beyond  the  student's 
ability.  The  problem  of  doing  a  certain  task  demands 
that  he  apply  his  theory  gained  in  the  previous  two 


APPLICATION  OF  THE   PROJECT   IDEA         165 

weeks'  period  and  apply  it  to  this  situation.  In  ad- 
dition new  problems  arise  which  demand  solution 
during  the  practice  terms,  allowing  the  student  oppor- 
tunity to  develop  principles  as  needed. 

The  cooperative  plan  offers  the  advantage  of  pro- 
viding a  real  shop  atmosphere  where  commercial  prod- 
ucts of  a  large  variety  are  manufactured  and  subjected 
to  the  test  of  their  salability.  By  this  scheme  projects 
are  carried  to  completion  in  their  natural  setting. 

Another  interesting  approach  to  the  project  method 
is  the  method  developed  or  practiced  in  some  engineer- 
ing colleges  in  connection  with  the  practical  work  of 
surveying.  The  practice  work  usually  given  in  con- 
nection with  the  surveying  courses  has  been  (1)  the 
surveying  of  the  campus,  (2)  the  summer-camp  work 
where  a  certain  amount  of  territory  is  assigned,  and 
(3)  actual  practical  work.  Professor  C.  E.  Sherman 
gives  the  account  of  the  beginning  of  the  Summer 
Surveying  Courses  at  the  Ohio  State  University. 

"  In  response  to  student  sentiment,  and  in  view 
of  the  fact  that  the  campus  exercises  gave  no  notice- 
able proficiency  in  the  use  of  the  instruments,  nor  an 
adequate  idea  of  procedure  in  the  field,  a  special  course 
in  field  practice  was  tried  in  June,  1888. 

"The  class  of  seven  second-year  civil  engineers  in 
charge  of  Professor  Brown,  after  studying  land  and 
railroad  surveying  for  a  year,  spent  one  week  in  June 
in  making  a  reconnaissance,  preliminary,  and  location 
survey  for  a  proposed  electric  railway  two  and  a  half 
miles  long,  between  two  small  towns  distant  about 


166        THE  PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

60  miles  from  the  University  in  the  rough  southeastern 
portion  of  Ohio.  Most  of  the  field  work  was  completed, 
map  drawn  up  in  pencil,  and  earthwork  partly  figured 
before  leaving  the  field."  1 

In  1900  the  University  authorities  provided  a  camp 
equipment  and  this  practice  training  was  continued  in 
the  camps  from  1900  to  1902.  These  camps  gave  ex- 
cellent practice,  furnishing  an  opportunity  to  show  the 
difficulties  met  in  surveying  that  would  not  be  brought 
out  on  the  level  campus.  The  work  was  rotated,  in 
order  to  give  the  students  different  types  of  training. 
Office  work  was  done  each  night,  —  plotting  notes, 
inking  maps,  and  calculating  earth  work. 

This  work  did  not  constitute  a  true  project,  but 
rather  a  multi-problem.  The  work  was  done  to  pass 
a  school  requirement  and  to  give  laboratory  work. 

The  students  who  were  excused  from  these  "  labora- 
tory "  camps  to  go  on  practical  work  came  back  to 
their  tasks  in  the  fall  with  so  fine  a  spirit  that  after 
three  sessions  it  was  decided  to  try  the  practical  sum- 
mer-camp system. 

The  work  of  the  practical  summer  camp  is  done  under 
the  supervision  of  one  of  the  university  instructors 
who  acts  in  the  capacity  of  a  foreman.  The  experience 
of  the  class  as  a  whole  varies  widely  in  amount  and 
character,  but  this  may  be  looked  upon  as  an  advantage, 

1  Sherman,  C.  E.  and  Schlafly,  R.  K.,  "Summer  Surveying  Courses 
at  the  Ohio  State  University."  Engineering  Education,  Vol.  21,  pp.  278- 
319. 


APPLICATION   OF  THE   PROJECT   IDEA         167 

for,  "  in  the  work  before  the  class  in  the  lecture  room, 
it  arouses  the  members  when  points  are  brought  for- 
ward from  their  collective  experience."  The  aim  of 
the  department  has  not  been  to  give  identical  training 
to  each  member  of  the  camp,  but  rather  to  provide 
a  real  task,  "  the  accomplishing  of  which  will  forcibly 
illustrate  to  the  student  the  use  of  the  instruments  and 
methods  of  his  calling."  1  When  the  student  sees  in- 
structors attempting  real  problems  and  relying  on  each 
to  do  his  share,  it  encourages  a  spirit  difficult  to  get  in 
imaginary  or  practice  problems.  The  students  are 
expected  to  give  suggestions  and  to  question  the  work 
at  any  stage. 

The  practical  summer  camp  and  actual  employment 
with  practicing  surveyors  are  both  superior  to  the 
practice  summer  camp.  The  advantages  for  the 
practical  summer-camp  work  are  : 

(1)  The  student  gets  more  thorough  drill  on  a  few 
principles  even  though  not  such  a  broad  training. 

(2)  The  sense  of  responsibility  is  increased. 

(3)  The  job  creates  greater  interest  and  enthusiasm. 
The  opponents  of  the  practical  summer-camp  scheme 

maintain  that  in  the  practical  camp  it  is  "  difficult  to 
adapt  the  work  to  meet  exactly  the  educational  needs 
of  the  students,  the  incessant  and  comprehensive  drill 
in  fundamental  principles." 

1  Sherman,  C.  E.  and  Schlafly,  R.  K.,  "  Summer  Surveying  Courses 
at  the  Ohio  State  University."  Engineering  Education,  Vol.  21, 
p.  313. 


168        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

The  practical  surveying  approximates  the  project. 
If,  however,  the  purpose  is  merely  to  illustrate  principles 
previously  learned  then  it  is  not  a  project  because  there 
are  no  problems  involved.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
principles  are  developed  in  this  practical  work  as 
needed,  then  it  is  the  project  method.  Problematic 
acts  are  carried  to  completion  in  their  natural  setting. 

II.  THE  LEGAL  AND  MEDICAL  CLINICS 

Some  of  the  ideas  embodied  in  project  teaching  have 
been  incorporated  in  medical  education  under  the 
interneship  and  clinics.  Recently  the  need  recognized 
in  legal  education  for  a  type  of  training  which  would 
give  the  students  practice  in  carrying  through  a  case 
in  its  natural  setting  has  led  to  a  type  of  teaching 
known  as  the  legal  clinic. 

It  is  now  generally  conceded  that  training  in  legal 
reasoning  and  substantive  law  can  be  most  economically 
learned  in  the  law  school.  This  point  is  emphasized 
by  E.  M.  Morgan : 

"It  is  doubtless  true  that  familiarity  with  the 
principles  of  practice  and  their  application  could  be 
most  effectively  acquired  in  some  offices,  if  the  lawyers 
in  charge  thereof  were  so  minded.  But  only  in  those 
offices  having  a  general  practice  could  anything  like 
a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  subject  be  attained 
without  a  great  deal  of  independent  investigation.  At 
present,  the  offices  of  general  practice  are  few ;  and  in 
those  few  offices  the  time  of  the  experienced  men  is 


APPLICATION   OF  THE   PROJECT   IDEA         169 

considered  too  valuable  to  be  spent  in  the  instruction 
of  embryo  jurists."  l 

The  instructors  in  the  law  schools  are  beginning  to 
feel  that  some  provision  should  be  made  to  give  this 
training  in  practice  in  connection  with  the  work  of  the 
law  school.  As  Morgan  indicates : 

"  There  would  seem  to  be  no  more  reason  for  failing 
or  refusing  to  teach  the  principles  of  practice  than 
for  dropping  the  usual  courses  on  pleading  and  evi- 
dence. Why  should  a  law  school  teach  the  requisites 
of  pleadings,  the  effect  of  defects  and  irregularities 
therein,  and  the  methods  of  attacking  them,  and  re- 
fuse to  give  instruction  as  to  the  same  matters  with 
reference  to  process  ?  Is  it  less  essential  that  a  student 
know  the  effect  of  an  appearance  than  that  he  know 
the  effect  of  pleading  over  ?  The  principles  underlying 
the  right  to  a  jury,  the  selection  of  jurors,  and  the  right 
to  open  and  close,  to  take  or  force  a  dismissal,  and  to 
secure  a  directed  verdict ;  the  rules  governing  instruc- 
tions to  the  jury  and  requests  therefor;  .  .  .  the 
privileges  and  limitations  of  counsel  in  arguing  to  the 
jury;  the  prerequisites  and  grounds  of  motions  for 
a  new  trial,  judgment  notwithstanding  the  verdict,  or 
an  appeal  —  all  these  and  other  matters  of  practice  are 
fully  as  important  as  the  rules  of  evidence.  They 
are  almost  as  adequately  treated  in  the  decisions,  and 
are  as  readily  and  as  satisfactorily  taught  by  the  case 
method.  And,  in  fact,  the  rules  of  pleading  and 
evidence  are  of  little  practical  value  unless  properly 
articulated  with  the  rules  and  principles  of  practice." 

1  Morgan,  E.  M.,  "  The  Legal  Clinic."  American  Law  School  Review, 
Vol.  4,  p.  255,  March,  1917.  J  Morgan,  E.  M.,  op.  tit.,  p.  252. 


170        THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

It  is  possible  to  be  familiar  with  the  principles  and 
rules  of  evidences  and  practice  and  not  be  able  to  rec- 
ognize their  applicability  to  a  given  case.  This  situa- 
tion is  similar  to  one  in  which  the  girl  in  household 
science  may  know  the  principles  of  a  balanced  meal, 
the  principles  of  interior  decoration,  and  yet  may  be 
helpless  in  applying  these  to  the  improvement  of  home 
conditions. 

The  real  test  of  ability  in  practice  is  shown  in  the 
power  to  apply  rules  to  concrete  cases.  In  law  like- 
wise, — 

"  the  real  criterion  of  one's  knowledge  of  procedure 
is  one's  ability  to  apply  its  rules,  as  well  as  the  principles 
of  substantive  law,  not  to  cases  where  only  the  relevant 
and  material  facts  are  given,  but  to  cases  as  they 
actually  arise  in  everyday  life  and  as  they  are  presented 
in  court."  1 

In  attempting  to  provide  a  substitute  for  real  prac- 
tice, the  moot  or  practice  court  was  proposed.  This 
has  many  advantages  in  that  it  gives  a  certain  amount 
of  technique  in  carrying  a  case  forward  to  completion. 
Evidence  is  taken,  briefs  are  prepared,  and  the  plead- 
ings made,  yet  the  one  serious  drawback  is  that  the 
situation  is  not  real.  There  are  no  real  witnesses, 
the  whole  thing  lacks  the  human  element.  The  student 
has  no  responsibility  to  protect  the  rights  of  the  client, 
"  the  so-called  witnesses  are  ready  to  his  hand ;  they 

1  Morgan,  E.  M.,  "The  Legal  Clinic."  American  Law  School  Review, 
Vol.  4,  p.  255,  March,  1917. 


APPLICATION   OF  THE   PROJECT   IDEA         171 

are  usually  able  clearly  and  intelligently  to  tell  their 
stories,  and  to  distinguish  the  material  from  the  im- 
material." 1 

In  order  to  overcome  some  of  the  deficiencies  in 
obtaining  practice  in  legal  procedure,  the  University 
of  Minnesota  in  1913  began  an  experiment  in  coSpera- 
tion  with  the  Associated  Charities  of  Minneapolis. 
A  young  practicing  attorney,  who  was  later  given  as 
an  assistant  another  young  member  of  the  bar,  was 
in  charge  of  the  experiment,  and  was  appointed  an 
instructor  in  practice  in  the  University  Law  School. 
Each  student  spends  three  weeks  in  this  work.  He 
works  out  the  cases,  interviews  clients,  takes  down 
testimony,  investigates  facts,  negotiates  for  settle- 
ment, and  drafts  the  pleadings.  His  mistakes  are 
pointed  out  and  he  is  required  to  correct  them.  The 
experience  gained  is  varied.  About  three  hundred 
cases  are  handled  a  month.  The  cases  are  compara- 
tively insignificant  as  far  as  the  momentary  consequence 
is  concerned,  yet  they  are  illustrative  of  innumerable 
points  in  law.  The  course  serves  to  round  out  the 
course  in  practice,  it  makes  up  the  deficiency  after  the 
study  of  the  principles,  and  it  makes  the  work  real  — 
there  are  real  cases  tried.  The  student,  moreover, 
is  trained  to  deal  with  different  types  of  individuals. 

The  objection  usually  urged  against  the  legal  clinic 
is  that  too  few  cases  are  tried  to  make  it  worth  while. 

1  Morgan,  E.  M.,  "  The  Legal  Clinic."  American  Law  School  Review, 
Vol.  4,  p.  256,  March,  1917. 


172        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

Professor  John  H.  Wigmore,  Northwestern  University 
Law  School,  answers : 

"  The  objection  that  the  range  of  cases  in  legal  work 
is  not  sufficiently  varied  has  sometimes  been  raised 
by  members  of  the  bar,  even  in  large  cities.  But  a  full 
acquaintance  with  the  work  of  an  active  legal  aid 
society  would  dispel  the  objection.  The  variety  of 
cases  is  certainly  far  greater  than  in  any  single  law 
office.  Do  you  know  that  the  largest  law  office  in 
the  United  States  is  the  Legal  Aid  Society  of  New 
York  with  nearly  40,000  new  cases  annually?  Do 
you  know  that  the  next  largest  law  office  is  the  Legal 
Aid  Society  of  Chicago  with  12,000  cases  annually? 
The  litigation  arising  out  of  these  cases  runs  into  every 
court  in  the  country,  and  involves  the  use  of  practically 
every  variety  of  legal  document.  In  more  than  one 
case,  the  society's  attorneys  have  helped  to  make  law 
both  in  the  supreme  court  and  in  the  legislature's 
sessions."  l 

A  brief  survey  of  the  methods  that  have  been  and 
are  now  being  employed  in  the  study  of  law  will  show 
that  the  use  of  the  legal  clinic  is  an  outgrowth  of  an 
effort  to  make  the  law  teaching  not  only  more  interest- 
ing, but  more  thorough  and  more  practical. 

The  first  method  employed  was  the  learning  of  the 
principles  of  law,  with  some  illustrations.  This  method 
is  no  longer  used  in  the  best  law  schools.  It  is  rec- 
ognized that  such  a  method  gives  no  more  than  a 
superficial  knowledge  of  the  law.  The  technique  of 

1  Wigmore,  John  H.,  "The  Legal  Clinic."  Case  and  Comment, 
Vol.  28,  p.  974,  May,  1917. 


APPLICATION   OF  THE   PROJECT   IDEA         173 

the  case,  the  points  of  contention,  etc.,  are  eliminated. 
The  study  of  Blackstone  as  the  only  text  illustrates 
this  method.  The  merit  of  the  case  system  as  indicated 
by  Ballantine  — 

"  is  mainly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  cases  present  con- 
crete problems  in  the  application  of  legal  principles 
to  facts,  and  afford  an  opportunity  for  arguing  how  the 
rules  of  law  should  be  formulated.  But  the  student 
usually  regards  the  cases,  not  as  problems  demanding 
solution,  but  as  problems  already  solved  by  the  judge, 
to  be  studied  by  him  as  authoritative  statements  of 
the  law.  His  task  is  that  of  understanding  the  judicial 
opinion."  l 

In  order  to  make  the  case  system  more  vital  Ballan- 
tine suggests  the  introduction  of  problems  : 

"  Even  if  the  professor  puts  problems  in  the  course 
of  classroom  discussion,  that  subject  having  been 
covered,  the  student  does  not  take  the  problem  home 
with  him  for  individual  original  thought.  In  reading 
the  cases  it  does  not  occur  to  him  ordinarily  to  compare 
the  various  cases  that  he  reads.  The  average  student 
does  not  seem  to  have  any  adequate  conception  of 
what  he  is  supposed  to  do  with  the  cases  assigned.  He 
does  not  know  what  he  is  looking  for,  or  what  to  put 
his  effort  upon.  The  study  hours  are  confined  largely 
to  assimilative  reading,  and  the  abstracting  and  ab- 
sorption of  the  doctrines  laid  down  in  the  opinion. 

"  Problems  may  then  be  advantageously  employed 

1  Ballantine,  H.  W.,  "Teaching  Contracts  with  the  Aid  of  Problems." 
American  Law  School  Review,  Vol.  4,  p.  118,  June,  1916. 


174        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

for  advance  study  as  well  as  for  review.  Instead  of 
simply  giving  out  problems  in  class  after  the  cases  have 
been  covered,  why  not  assign  one  or  two  problems  for 
each  meeting  of  the  course,  involving  a  practical  ap- 
plication of  the  text  or  cases  to  be  studied?  Let  oral 
or  written  solution  be  prepared,  using  the  casebook  or 
textbook  as  the  place  for  original  research.  In  this 
way  the  student  will  seek  for  and  grasp  the  principles 
of  a  case  as  something  to  be  used,  not  merely  to  be 
studied  and  learned  for  its  own  sake.  Under  such 
stimulus  the  student  should  be  able  to  read  many  more 
cases,  with  much  greater  intensity  of  effort,  concen- 
tration, and  comprehension."  l 

The  legal  clinic  is  but  an  additional  effort  to  pro- 
vide a  more  real  and  vital  method  for  teaching  the 
principles  of  procedure.  If  the  student  in  the  legal 
clinic  could  actually  do  all  the  pleading  and  take  com- 
plete charge  of  the  case,  it  would  constitute  a  project. 
To  the  extent  that  he  carries  the  process  toward  com- 
pletion, it  approximates  the  project  method. 

The  case  method  has  been  considered  by  some  edu- 
cators as  the  project  method  of  teaching  law,  because, 
as  they  pointed  out,  the  method  of  finding  the  points 
of  law  as  stated  in  the  cases  is  exactly  the  one  the 
lawyer  uses  in  practice.  The  case  method  does  not 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  project  because  it  does 
not  provide  a  natural  setting  for  the  problem.  The 
case  is  usually  solved  and  the  mental  activity  which 

1  Ballantine,  H.  W.,  "Teaching  Contracts  with  the  Aid  of  Problems." 
American  Law  School  Review,  Vol.  4,  p.  118,  June,  1916. 


APPLICATION   OF   THE   PROJECT   IDEA          175 

is  required  of  the  student  is  the  understanding  of  the 
case  as  presented. 

The  objections  raised  to  the  legal  clinic  are  interest- 
ing because  of  the  light  they  throw  on  the  limitations 
of  the  project  method  in  practically  all  forms  of  edu- 
cation : 

(1)  The  legal  clinic  is  inadequate  to  give  a  wide  range 
of  practical  experience.     Important  cases  in  law  will 
not  be  intrusted  to  the  care  of  beginners. 

(2)  The  training  of  the  clinic  is  likely  to  be  unsys- 
tematic, unless  supplemented  by  a  systematic  review. 

(3)  The  time  taken  by  the  clinic  work  is  not  justifi- 
able. 

(4)  Since  the  state  only  may  set  up  a  court,  it  will 
be  impossible  for  students  to  carry  the  case  to  com- 
pletion before  they  are  admitted  to  the  bar. 

The  points  in  favor  of  the  clinic  are  : 

(1)  It  gives  some  actual  experience.     It  teaches  the 
method  of  carrying  a  case  through  to  completion. 

(2)  The  work  in  the  clinic  is  done  with  a  high  degree 
of  interest, 

(3)  It  provides  a  natural  situation. 

The  experience  of  the  medical  schools  has  shown  that 
students  may  know  the  theory  of  diagnosis  as  repre- 
sented in  their  ability  to  solve  theoretical  cases,  and 
yet  be  helpless  at  first  in  a  real  situation.  They  may 
know  the  theory  of  operating,  may  have  observed 
operations,  may  have  helped  in  a  few  cases,  and  yet 
may  fail  when  the  responsibility  rests  on  them  to  carry 


176        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

out  the  whole  operation.  This  is  parallel  to  the 
handicap  of  the  law  student  who  knows  the  theory 
of  the  case  and  of  court  procedure  and  yet  may  not 
be  able  to  carry  out  a  case  when  facing  a  real  jury  with 
a  real  client. 

A  number  of  physicians  and  surgeons  of  Chicago, 
some  of  them  recognized  as  leaders,  were  asked  to  give 
the  outstanding  deficiencies  of  the  graduates  of  the 
leading  medical  schools,  as  observed  when  these 
graduates  began  their  interneships.  Two  were  given 
by  each  of  the  fourteen  physicians  and  surgeons  con- 
sulted : 

(1)  The  graduates  have  a  large  number  of  facts, 
but  they  are  not  evaluated.     All  facts  seem  to  stand 
,on  the  same  dead  level. 

(2)  The  graduates  have  no  skill  in  surgery.     Some 
reported  that  few  had  any  idea  of  the  simplest  technique. 

The  medical  schools  in  order  to  provide  for  this 
special  technique  have  instituted  the  clinic.  The  ma- 
terial for  the  medical  clinic  is  abundant  and  repre- 
sentative ;  the  cases  presented  for  treatment  are  real 
and  are  as  difficult  to  diagnose  and  treat  as  the  cases 
which  the  practitioner  will  meet.  The  difficulty  is 
that  all  the  students  observe  while  the  lecturer  does 
the  work.  The  students  rarely  have  the  opportunity 
to  take  part  in  the  work. 

The  leading  schools  are  now  recommending  that 
the  graduates  complete  an  interneship  before  going 


APPLICATION   OF  THE   PROJECT   IDEA         177 

into  practice,  for  it  is  claimed  that  the  variety  of  cases 
which  the  interne  takes  care  of  during  this  period  of 
apprenticeship  is  likely  to  be  greater  than  those  met 
in  the  first  ten  years  of  practice.  In  fact,  the  great 
advantage  which  is  claimed  for  the  interneship  is  the 
large  number  and  the  variety  of  cases  over  which  the 
young  doctor  must  take  complete  charge. 

After  completing  the  interneship,  the  young  doctor 
has  confidence  in  himself  for  he  has  now  not  only 
solved  hypothetical  cases,  but  he  has  also  actually 
received  the  patient,  made  the  diagnosis,  prescribed 
the  remedy,  watched  the  daily  results,  given  direc- 
tions to  the  nurse,  made  the  patient  realize  the  neces- 
sity of  following  directions,  looked  after  the  diet  and 
at  the  same  time  studied  the  case,  reviewing  principles 
which  had  been  previously  learned  and  mastering  new 
principles. 

The  method  of  teaching  practice  to  the  doctor 
by  the  clinic  and  the  interneship  illustrates  in  a 
measure  the  project  method.  The  diagnosis  of  a 
theoretical  case  is  not  a  project,  for  it  does  not  arise  in 
a  natural  setting.  The  interne  taking  complete  charge 
of  a  patient  has  exactly  the  same  situation  as  does  the 
practitioner.  The  more  intimately  the  principles  of 
diagnosis  can  be  studied  in  connection  with  real  cases, 
the  more  thoroughly  the  principles  and  te'chnique  of 
surgery  can  be  learned  in  a  natural  setting,  the  more 
nearly  will  it  approximate  the  true  project  method. 

If  the  clinic  be  used  merely  as  a  laboratory  experi- 


178        THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

ment  to  illustrate  principles  learned  at  some  previous 
time,  then  it  is  not  a  project,  but  merely  a  demonstra- 
tion. 

The  project  method  applied  to  medical  education 
would  carry  with  it  the  following  suggestions :  Before 
the  student  began  the  study  of  surgery,  diagnosis,  etc., 
he  would  have  a  junior  interneship,  in  which  he  would 
observe  operations  and  diagnosis.  This  method  has 
a  precedent  in  engineering  education  at  Rensselaer.1 
Before  the  students  began  the  study  of  engineering 
they  had,  it  will  be  remembered,  an  experimental  term, 
gathering  specimens  and  visiting  shops  and  factories 
to  get  the  setting  for  engineering  and  to  see  some  of 
the  problems  at  first  hand.  Paralleling  this,  the 
interne  would  study  the  processes  involved  in  the 
operations,  and  the  diagnosis.  In  other  words,  the 
problem  in  the  cases  presented  would  constitute  the 
basis  for  the  courses  in  surgery  and  medicine.  Ob- 
viously, a  large  number  of  cases  could  not  be  observed 
or  carried  through  but  this  could  then  be  supplemented 
by  a  systematic  study  of  cases  not  actually  observed. 

At  the  present,  this  would  cause  a  rearrangement  of 
the  courses  given  in  the  medical  schools.  It  would 
mean  that  some  parts  of  the  courses  would  be  given  in 
the  hospital.  This  may  be  difficult  to  realize  but  the 
principles  underlying  the  method  are  sound.  As  a 
substitute  for  this,  it  is  proposed  that  the  medical 
school  require  the  students  to  spend  a  junior  interne- 
1  See  pp.  158-159. 


APPLICATION   OF  THE   PROJECT   IDEA          179 

ship  in  a  hospital  between  the  second  and  third  years, 
and  between  the  third  and  fourth  years,  —  two  three- 
months  periods.  Opportunity  to  help  in  operations 
and  diagnosis  would  be  valuable  and  would  raise  prob- 
lems which  would  make  the  following  years  of  study 
vital  and  real.  It  would  be  a  very  efficient  method,  if 
principles  of  diagnosis  could  be  studied  in  connection 
with  the  real  cases  as  they  were  presented  for  diagnosis 
in  the  hospital.  This  could  be  supplemented  by  a 
systematic  study  of  diagnosis,  to  cover  the  cases  which 
were  not  presented  in  the  hospital. 

In  summarizing,  it  would  seem  that  the  most  that 
can  be  claimed  for  the  legal  clinic  is  that  it  is  a  very 
desirable  element  in  legal  training  but  cannot  be  relied 
upon  to  give  a  systematic  training  which  is  necessary ; 
unless  more  time  is  taken  than  can  be  seemingly  justi- 
fied by  the  results.  As  a  method  to  be  supplemented 
with  other  methods  it  is  highly  desirable  because  it 
carries  cases  to  completion  and  evaluates  material.  It 
demands  and  usually  obtains  a  high  degree  of  interest. 
In  so  far  as  the  student  actually  carries  the  real  case  to 
completion  just  so  far  it  approches  a  true  project. 

The  clinic  has  won  its  place  in  the  medical  profession. 
It  is  recognized  as  an  indispensable  element  in  medical 
training.  The  interneship  is  now  regarded  as  a  most 
desirable  part  of  the  course.  If  the  clinic  were  made 
to  include  actual  practice  by  the  student  and  if  the 
interneship  were  paralleled  with  a  study  of  the  prin- 
ciples underlying  the  cases  they  probably  would  be 


180        THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

more  effective.  The  clinic  is  usually  an  illustrative 
lesson  or  a  demonstration  and  the  interneship  is  gen- 
erally conducted  as  a  practicum  or  as  a  laboratory 
exercise.  The  principles  are  all  studied  first  and  com- 
pleted, then  the  young  doctor  is  placed  in  the  hospital 
to  try  to  apply  all  these  principles  at  once.  Unless 
exceptionally  careful  supervision  is  maintained,  many 
serious  mistakes  will  result.  If,  after  studying  part  of 
the  principles,  he  could  have  a  short  interneship  in 
order  to  use  those  principles  and  develop  other  prin- 
ciples as  needed  in  the  case  —  of  course  under  super- 
vision —  the  method  would  probably  be  far  more 
efficient.  The  method  would  be  improved  if  the 
student  were  asked  to  aid  in  taking  care  of  the  case 
and  then  were  sent  to  the  medical  literature  to  deter- 
mine the  principles,  remedy,  etc.  In  this  way,  the 
various  cases  would  compel  him  to  seek  out  the  prin- 
ciples. This  procedure  would,  of  course,  be  supple- 
mented by  a  systematic  training. 

To  the  extent  that  the  interne  develops  principles 
as  needed  in  the  case  under  his  partial  care  and  carries 
the  case  to  completion,  to  that  extent  the  procedure 
approaches  a  true  project. 

There  must  be  recognized  certain  limitations  of  the 
project  method  in  law  and  in  medicine,  for  the  state 
will  not  permit  the  student  of  law  or  of  medicine  to 
take  complete  charge  of  a  case  until  after  he  has 
received  a  state's  license  to  practice,  which  comes  only 
after  the  completion  of  a  systematic  curriculum. 


APPLICATION   OF  THE   PROJECT   IDEA         181 

III.  JOURNALISM 

The  ideas  embodied  in  project  teaching  are  incor- 
porated in  the  methods  used  by  Harrington  in  the 
journalism  courses  given  at  the  University  of  Illinois. 
This  statement  shows  his  attitude  toward  the  ideas 
back  of  the  project  method  : 

"  It  has  become  increasingly  evident  to  many  of 
us  who  have  shared  in  this  new  movement  that  the 
most  fruitful  instruction  in  journalism  is  that  which 
realistically  duplicates  the  conditions  of  the  newspaper 
office.  Here  is  no  make-believe,  but  the  real  thing. 
In  other  words,  the  project  method  which  develops 
many  journalistic  principles  as  needed  in  a  natural 
setting  of  work  pleasantly  pursued,  has  been  proved 
best  adapted  to  fulfilling  the  ends  we  have  in  view."  1 

The  atmosphere  of  a  real  newspaper  office  is  faith- 
fully maintained.  The  reporters  are  given  a  room  with 
typewriters,  current  newspapers,  telephones,  and  all 
necessary  facilities  for  obtaining  copy.  Even  the 
amount  of  time  which  the  reporters  spend  in  the  office 
is  faithfully  recorded.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  this  is  not  a  laboratory  but  a  real  newspaper  office, 
for  the  products  of  this  room  are  to  appear  in  the  daily 
newspaper.3 

1  Harrington,  H.  F.,  "Teaching  Journalism  in  a  Natural  Setting. 
An  Application  of  the  Project  Method."  Educational  Administration 
and  Supervision,  Vol.  5,  pp.  198-199,  April,  1919. 

1  "  The  output  of  our  local  room  .  .  .  reaches  the  eye  of  the  public,  and 
satisfies  a  real  need.  There  is  no  system  of  red-ink  corrections  left  by 
a  scrutinizing  teacher;  no  themes  written  on  assigned  'literary'  topics, 


182        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

Opportunities  are  given  the  students  to  do  different 
types  of  work,  in  fact,  eight  or  ten  distinct  duties  are 
assigned  to  each  pupil  every  week.  They  furnish  the 
university  news  for  the  two  down-town  afternoon 
papers,  the  large  part  of  the  news  for  the  campus  daily 
and  for  the  university  "  News-Bulletin,"  a  clipping 
sheet  of  authentic  news  sent  to  a  large  list  of  Illinois 
newspapers. 

This  method  of  teaching  journalism  well  illustrates 
the  project  method.  Principles  of  journalism  are 
developed  as  needed  by  the  student  in  carrying  his 
story  or  his  task  to  completion.  The  natural  setting 
is  present  for  the  student  has  a  waiting  audience  for 
his  story,  and  he  writes  his  story  in  a  real  newspaper 
office  for  a  real  newspaper.  He  writes  now  with  the 
motive  of  conveying  his  story  to  his  audience,  not 
merely  to  the  teacher  for  a  school  credit.  The  func- 
tional value  of  writing  is  thus  realized.  This  method 
of  teaching  journalism  develops  interest,  for  a  medium 
is  furnished  the  reporters  for  their  productions. 

The  shortcoming  of  the  project  method  in  journalism 
is  the  failure  to  give  a  systematic  view  of  the  subjects. 
After  principles  have  been  developed  as  needed  in  their 
natural  setting,  it  will  be  well  to  have  a  logical  or 
systematic  review  of  the  principles  in  order  to  avoid 
any  gap  in  the  subject.  It  may  be  difficult  to  have 

productions  which  so  often  reach  the  waste  basket." — Harrington,  H.  F., 
"  Teaching  Journalism  in  a  Natural  Setting.  An  Application  of  the 
Project  Method."  Educational  Administration  and  Supervision, 
Vol.  5,  p.  199. 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  PROJECT  IDEA          183 

every  principle  arise  in  its  natural  setting;  hence  the 
necessity  of  the  systematic  view. 

IV.   MODERN  LANGUAGE 

The  direct  method  of  modern  language  teaching 
incorporates  most  of  the  ideas  of  the  project  method. 
The  aim  of  the  direct  method  is  to  teach  the  modern 
language  by  imitation  without  much  intervention  of 
the  mother  tongue. 

Some  of  the  arguments  in  favor  of  the  direct  method 
are :  the  interest  of  the  students  is  greatly  intensified 
and  the  grammar  is  studied  inductively,  that  is,  rules 
are  discovered  as  the  need  arises.  In  fact,  Handschin 
asserts  that  — 

"  The  direct  method  makes  use  of  all  that  is  valuable 
in  the  other  methods,  and  thus  may  be  considered  an 
eclectic  method  which  is  eminently  adapted  to  our 
modern  education  with  its  varied  demands."  1 

The  advantages  of  the  Gouin  method,  which  forms 
an  interesting  preliminary  to  the  direct  method,  are 
enumerated  by  the  Committee  of  Twelve. 

"  Out  of  the  conviction  that  modern-language  study 
should  be  made  attractive,  and  out  of  the  desire  to 
adapt  instruction  to  the  known  workings  of  the  human 
mind,  has  come  a  system  that  seems  more  deserving 
of  serious  attention  than  the  grammar  method  or  the 
natural  style  of  teaching. 

1  Handschin,  Charles  H.,  "The  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages  ip 
the  United  States,"  p.  100.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  No.  510,  1913. 


184        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

"  The  Betis  or  Gouin  method  has  the  following  ob- 
vious advantages  :  It  trains  the  memory ;  it  fascinates 
the  student  and  holds  his  attention  more  closely  than 
any  other  mode  of  teaching  now  in  vogue ;  it  gives  the 
pupil,  in  a  reasonably  short  time,  a  ready  command 
over  a  large,  well-arranged,  and  well-digested  vocabu- 
lary ;  it  affords  through  some  of  its  conversational 
groups,  an  insight  into  the  life  of  a  foreign  country."  1 

The  direct  method  makes  an  effort  to  stage  the  prob- 
lems in  their  natural  setting.  The  atmosphere  of  the 
foreign  language  is  faithfully  reproduced  and  con- 
versation is  based  upon  the  foreign  language  entirely. 
The  desire  to  take  part  in  the  conversation  spurs  the 
student  on  to  obtain  control  of  the  new  language.  The 
practice  of  having  foreign  language  tables  at  the  board- 
ing houses  is  another  step  toward  realizing  a  natural 
setting  for  the  language. 

An  ideal  project  method  of  teaching  the  foreign  lan- 
guage would  be  to  take  the  class  to  the  foreign  country 
and  then  the  real  need  for  control  of  the  new  language 
would  be  made  evident  to  the  students.  Our  Ameri- 
can soldiers  learned  French  by  this  method.  The 
devices  of  direct  method,  foreign  language  tables, 
clubs,  etc.,  represent  an  effort  to  approximate  this 
same  natural  setting. 

The  shortcomings  of  the  direct  method,  vigorously 
pointed  out  by  its  opponents,  are  that  it  does  not  give 

1  Report  of  Committee  of  Twelve  of  the  Modern  Language  Associa- 
tion of  America,  pp.  21-22.  Published  by  D.  C.  Heath. 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  PROJECT  IDEA  185 

a  systematic  training  in  the  grammar ;  the  pupils  often 
are  unable  to  write  correctly,  pronounce  correctly,  or 
translate  correctly.  It  is  interesting  in  this  connection 
to  quote  from  Krause,  an  advocate  of  the  direct  method, 
to  show  that  he  makes  provision  in  the  direct  method 
for  systematic  training  in  reading,  writing,  and  the 
grammar  of  the  foreign  language. 

"  The  direct  method  implies  a  direct  appeal  to  the 
learner  through  the  foreign  language ;  that  is,  it  teaches 
the  language,  and  not  merely  about  the  language,  as  is 
done  by  an  indirect  procedure.  The  aim  of  the  reform 
method  is :  Reading  ability  developed  by  means  of 
oral  facility.  In  this  wise  both  aspects  of  language, 
the  literary  and  the  spoken,  are  considered.  To  make 
my  position  perfectly  clear,  I  shall  enunciate  once  more 
the  five  cardinal  points  in  the  reform  of  modern  lan- 
guage teaching,  i.e.,  insistence  upon  good  pronuncia- 
tion, and  so-called  realien.  Could  you,  indeed,  con- 
ceive of  effective  modern  language  instruction  if  the 
teachers  were  not  to  lay  great  stress  upon  accuracy  of 
pronunciation ;  if  they  should  not  vitalize  and  vivify 
their  teaching  by  work  in  speaking ;  if  they  were  not 
to  bring  their  pupils  into  possession  of  usable  gram- 
matical facts  ;  if  their  students  could  not  read  without 
translating ;  and  if  the  foreign  nation,  through  a  study 
of  its  literature,  of  its  people,  and  its  customs,  were 
not  to  be  brought  into  sympathetic  view  and  apprecia- 
tion ?  In  short,  not  the  dead  letter  but  the  living  word 
must  be  placed  in  the  foreground  of  modern  language 
instruction."  l 

1  Krause,  Carl  A.,  "  The  Direct  Method  in  Modern  Languages," 
pp.  101,  102  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1916. 


186        THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

The  direct  method  develops  great  interest  and  ap- 
proaches the  natural  setting  for  the  language.  In  this 
method,  situations  are  so  staged  that  the  learners  feel 
the  need  for  control  of  the  language  and  in  obtaining 
this  control  the  functional  value  of  the  language  is 
realized.  In  so  far  as  the  method  provides  for  carrying 
acts  to  completion  in  their  natural  setting  it  (method) 
approaches  the  project  method.  Provision  must  be 
made  for  a  complete  survey  and  systematic  review  of 
principles. 

V.   INSURANCE  SALESMANSHIP 

The  establishment  of  the  School  of  Life  Insurance 
Salesmanship  at  the  Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology 
is  of  interest  not  only  to  the  insurance  fraternity,  but 
also  to  those  concerned  with  the  scientific  study  of  edu- 
cation. The  latter  will  be  especially  interested  in  the 
use  made  of  scientific  methods  in  the  organization 
of  the  curriculum  and  in  the  methods  employed  in 
teaching. 

Since  the  objective  of  this  school  was  so  clear-cut, 
—  "to  train  men  and  women  to  sell  insurance,"  -  the 
author's  problem  of  curriculum  organization  was  not 
difficult  as  compared  with  the  problems  facing  edu- 
cators trying  to  organize  curricula  for  elementary 
and  high  school  courses,  where  the  objectives  are  not  so 
definite. 

Two  general  principles  of  curriculum  organization 
were  followed  in  this  work :  (l)  Material  that  is  used 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  PROJECT  IDEA          187 

frequently  by  most  of  the  insurance  men  in  their 
daily  work  was  considered  necessary.  This  material 
was  included  in  the  course.  The  standard  for  the 
selection  of  material  is  based  upon  "frequency  of  use." 
(2)  There  are  many  situations  which  the  salesman 
faces  that  require  special  knowledge  and  training. 
If  he  is  not  prepared  for  these  situations,  he  either 
tries  to  handle  them  and  makes  mistakes  or  does  not 
even  try.  Material  which  will  help  the  salesman  in 
this  part  of  his  work  obviously  must  be  included. 
Material  included  for  these  reasons  is  selected  on  the 
principle  known  as  the  "frequency  of  error." 

The  experience  and  methods  of  successful  insurance 
agents  have  been  analyzed  and  used.  Standard 
sources,  including  periodicals,  sales  bulletins,  and  text- 
books dealing  with  life  insurance  and  life-insurance 
salesmanship,  have  been  critically  surveyed  to  make 
certain  that  the  essential  facts  needed  by  the  salesman 
have  been  incorporated  in  this  course.  Material 
which  is  not  essential  to  the  selling  of  life  insurance 
has  been  rigorously  eliminated.  The  final  choice  has 
been  determined  by  making  an  analysis  of  the  job  to 
learn  just  what  it  is  necessary  to  know  and  to  do,  to 
meet  the  job's  requirement.  Hence  the  course  includes 
the  facts,  principles,  and  methods  of  life-insurance 
salesmanship  which  are  needed  by  the  successful 
salesman. 

After  this  material  had  been  gathered  and  organized 
the  problem  of  determining  the  method  of  instruc- 


188        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

tion  was  attacked.  It  seemed  to  the  author  that  the 
project  method,  with  some  modification,  would  be  the 
most  effective. 

The  true  project  method  of  teaching  life-insurance 
salesmanship  would  be  to  have  the  men  and  women 
begin  by  soliciting  insurance.  The  difficulties  and 
problems  which  they  meet  would  constitute  the  prob- 
lem-material for  the  curriculum.  From  the  author's 
point  of  view  the  true  project  method  of  teaching 
life-insurance  salesmanship  (beginning  to  sell  at  once) 
is  probably  the  most  effective,  provided  that  the  sales- 
man has  plenty  of  time  to  learn,  is  carefully  directed 
and  taught  after  each  day's  work,  and  provided  further 
that  in  this  training  period,  the  "prospects"  and  the 
service  rendered  them  by  inexperienced  salesmen 
be  disregarded. 

These  objections  are  so  significant  that  it  seems 
necessary  to  effect  a  compromise  method  of  instruction. 
The  objections  are  similar  to  those  in  medicine  and 
law.  Clients,  patients,  and  prospects  alike,  must 
be  protected  against  malpractice. 

What  is  the  compromise  form  of  teaching  proposed  ? 
The  students  in  this  school  are  first  taught  the  ele- 
mentary facts  in  the  principles  and  functions  of  in- 
surance, and  the  principles  and  practical  methods 
of  life-insurance  salesmanship.  Sales  talks  are  de- 
veloped based  upon  the  insurance  needs  of  the  in- 
dividual. About  the  first  half  of  the  term  is  taken 
up  with  this  study  before  the  students  actually  solicit 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  PROJECT  IDEA          189 

insurance.  During  the  latter  half  of  the  school  period, 
time  is  provided  for  actual  selling  practice.  The  diffi- 
culties and  problems  which  are  met  by  the  students 
in  the  actual  selling  are  then  discussed  in  the  school 
periods. 

This  modified  project  method  of  teaching  is  justi- 
fiable because  of  the  obligation  to  render  service  which 
the  insurance  fraternity  owes  to  the  clientele  which  it 
serves. 

The  author  firmly  believes  that  law  and  medicine 
could  be  learned  by  starting  men  to  practice  without 
any  knowledge  of  law  or  medicine  and  permitting  them 
to  practice  and  learn  as  they  go,  very  much  as  men  in 
the  insurance  business  ordinarily  learn  their  profession. 
Not  many  of  us,  even  those  advocating  this  method  of 
training  insurance  salesmen,  would  be  willing  to  have 
such  doctors  or  lawyers  practice  on  us.  Again,  the  pro- 
tagonists of  this  method  might  maintain,  policies  are  so 
well  standardized  that  insurance  men,  whether  trained 
or  not,  cannot  do  a  serious  injustice  to  their  clients. 
The  author  recognizes  that  there  is  some  merit  in  this 
statement  and  also  that  there  are  on  the  market  stand- 
ardized medicines  which  are  used  widely  by  all  phy- 
sicians. It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  most  people  would 
prefer  to  have  their  needs  diagnosed  by  a  trained 
physician  before  taking  even  standardized  medicines. 

Insurance  salesmanship  cannot  be  taught  by  read- 
ing about  insurance  salesmanship,  no  matter  how  exten- 
sive the  reading.  To  learn  salesmanship  the  actual 


190        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

job  of  selling  must  be  done.  This  actual  selling  has 
been  provided  for  in  the  Carnegie  School  of  Life  In- 
surance Salesmanship,  but  provided  for  in  a  way  which 
will  protect  the  clients. 

It  may  be  appropriate  to  state  here  that  there  are 
many  interesting  examples  of  the  project  method  of 
teaching  and  curriculum  organization  among  the 
projects  carried  out  at  the  Carnegie  Institute  of 
Technology. 

The  Department  of  Dramatic  Arts  is  so  organized 
as  to  give  the  student  a  general  knowledge  of  the 
technique  of  the  drama,  approaching  it  by  literary 
and  historical  courses,  as  well  as  through  a  severe  train- 
ing in  direct  technical  work.  The  students  are  re- 
quired to  give  public  performances,  and  in  carrying 
out  these  projects,  they  are  required  to  give  considera- 
tion to  the  making  of  scenery  and  costumes,  dramatic 
literature,  composition,  music,  and,  in  general,  the  com- 
plete work  of  production.  The  project  here  is  the 
performance.  The  material  of  instruction  consists 
of  the  facts,  principles,  and  skills  which  are  necessary 
to  perfect  this  performance. 

Similar  projects  are  carried  out  in  other  depart- 
ments of  the  Division  of  Arts.  In  the  Division  of 
Applied  Psychology  there  are  interesting  uses  of  the 
project  method  in  the  work  done  by  the  Bureau  of 
Personnel  Research  and  the  Bureau  of  Retail  Selling. 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  PROJECT  IDEA          191 

VI.  SUMMARY 

A  brief  survey  of  the  literature  dealing  with  the  proj- 
ect idea  in  engineering,  law,  medicine,  journalism,  and 
the  modern  languages  has  been  presented  to  show  that 
the  idea  behind  the  term,  as  denned  by  the  writer,  is 
used  with  some  modifications.  The  effort  expended  in 
all  these  fields  has  been  to  bring  about  a  methodology 
which  will  tend  to  bridge  the  chasm  between  school 
tasks  and  activities  outside  the  school.  The  project 
idea  aims  to  present  problems  in  situations  not  essen- 
tially different  from  those  of  life  and  to  develop  the 
technique  of  carrying  the  act  to  completion. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

APPLICATION  OF  THE  PROJECT  METHOD  TO  SUBJECTS 
IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  AND  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

THE  literature  dealing  with  the  teaching  of  en- 
gineering, law,  medicine,  journalism,  agriculture,  and 
the  modern  languages  shows  that  the  project  idea  is 
used  with  some  modification  in  all  these  subjects.  A 
survey  of  the  teaching  methods  in  the  elementary  and 
high  school  subjects  will  reveal  the  same  tendency. 

This  apparent  uniformity  of  purpose,  in  accepting 
the  same  tendencies  in  methods  of  teaching,  is  no  doubt 
due  to  an  effort  to  develop  a  unit  of  teaching  which 
will  bridge  the  gap  between  school  tasks  and  activities 
carried  on  outside  the  school. 

The  history  of  engineering  education  shows  that  the 
first  engineering  college  curriculums  laid  great  emphasis 
on  logically  arranged  abstract  knowledge.  The  prin- 
ciples of  engineering  were  abstracted,  codified,  and  made 
available  for  instructional  purposes.  No  particular 
effort  was  made  to  teach  the  principles  of  engineering 
in  connection  with  their  natural  setting.  Few  labora- 
tories or  factories  were  provided,  and  even  the  inspec- 
tion of  plants  by  the  engineering  students  was  not  a 
part  of  the  course.  The  shortcomings  of  this  method 
of  curriculum  organization  were  soon  recognized  and 

192 


APPLICATION   OF   THE   PROJECT  METHOD      193 

there  arose  a  demand  for  laboratories  and  plants  ade- 
quately equipped,  whereby  students  in  the  engineering 
courses  might  participate  in  actual  engineering  practice. 

The  courses  in  the  agricultural  colleges  were  domi- 
nated at  first  by  instructors  who  were  intent  on  collecting 
and  organizing  a  complete  system  of  logically  arranged 
facts.  This  material  lacked  concreteness  and  was  not 
particularly  related  to  the  actual  problems  which  the 
farmers  faced.  Schools  of  this  character  were  severely 
criticized  because  they  contributed  little  to  farming 
practice.  The  curriculum  was  so  organized  that 
emphasis  was  placed  on  the  acquisition  of  abstract  sub- 
ject matter.  It  was  not  until  the  experimental  farms, 
the  experiment  stations,  the  cooperative  plan  of  farm- 
ing, and  the  home-project  plan  of  teaching  agriculture 
made  their  appearance  in  connection  with  the  courses 
in  agriculture  that  these  agricultural  colleges  contrib- 
uted widely  to  the  solution  of  the  farmer's  problems. 

The  study  of  law  was  confined  in  the  beginning  to 
the  reading  mastery  of  Blackstone.  Later  the  law 
school  course  was  carefully  planned,  and  the  material 
organized  and  incorporated  in  a  college  curriculum. 
This  course  was  more  elaborate  than  the  material 
found  in  Blackstone.  The  criticism  that  was  made  of 
the  graduates  of  this  course  was  that  they 
knew  a  great  deal  about  law,  but  were  unable  to  prac- 
tice successfully  until  after  a  few  years  of  experience. 
In  order  to  make  the  course  meet  more  nearly  the 
actual  situation  which  the  young  lawyer  would  face, 


194        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

the  case  method,  the  moot  and  practice  courts,  and 
finally  the  legal  clinic  have  been  introduced. 

The  medical  schools  have  in  turn  faced  the  same  prob- 
lem, with  the  result  that  laboratories,  clinics,  and  interne- 
ships  have  been  developed  and  provided  in  an  effort  to 
make  some  provision  for  actual  experience  or  for  the 
teaching  of  the  subject  matter  in  its  natural  setting. 

The  emphasis  which  had  been  placed  at  first  on  the 
teaching  of  abstract  subject  matter  in  medicine,  law, 
agriculture,  and  engineering,  followed  by  plans  to 
teach  these  subjects  in  their  natural  setting,  has  been 
described.  This  tendency  has  carried  over  into  the 
fields  of  elementary  and  high  school  subject  matter. 

The  tendency  to  make  the  subject  matter  taught  in 
schools  abstract  at  first  can  probably  be  accounted  for 
historically.  In  the  early  division  of  labor,  the  teach- 
ing was  turned  over  to  the  men  who  were  or  who  became 
the  scholars.  The  teachers  soon  became  absorbed  in 
the  development  of  subject  matter  and  withdrew  from 
active  participation  in  the  affairs  of  the  community. 
In  this  atmosphere,  sometimes  quite  aloof  from  com- 
munity life,  the  system  of  instruction  was  developed, 
with  the  result  that  the  material  was  often  taken  out  of 
its  concrete  setting,  was  abstracted,  codified,  and  ar- 
ranged in  systematic  form  for  teaching.  Hence,  the 
natural  setting  for  subject  matter  was  soon  forgotten 
or  disregarded. 

This  formal  education  carried  on  in  the  schools 
differed  materially  from  that  given  in  the  home. 


APPLICATION  OF  THE   PROJECT   METHOD      195 

Education  given  first  in  the  home  was  concrete.  In- 
formation was  acquired  in  its  natural  setting;  it  was 
used  to  modify  conduct;  it  developed  by  meeting 
situations  which  arose  for  solution.  Thinking  out 
solutions  was  a  very  large  part  of  this  home  learning. 
Schools  carried  on  in  the  homes  were  informal ;  hence, 
they  afforded  opportunity  for  individual  work  and 
expression  —  in  other  words,  the  socialized  recitation, 
as  we  now  describe  this  type  of  teaching  situation,  was 
utilized.  The  school  was  frequently  carried  on  in 
connection  with  the  home  activities,  and  the  subject 
matter  grew  out  of  the  problems  which  arose  for 
solution  in  daily  life. 

After  the  school  became  separated  from  the  home 
and  was  carried  on  at  separate  institutions  with  their 
teaching  corps,  the  work  became  more  formal  and  more 
abstract.  The  education  furnished  by  these  men  who 
had  lost  contact  with  the  world  culminated  in  a  system 
so  unrelated  to  everyday  affairs  that  to-day  we  are 
compelled  to  make  an  effort  to  formulate  a  method 
which  will  provide  some  of  the  good  points  of  the  in- 
struction which  had  been  carried  on  in  the  home  before 
the  advent  of  formal  education.  We  are  trying  to 
bring  into  the  school  more  concrete  subject  matter. 

Criticism  of  the  teaching  in  the  schools  has  centered 
mainly  around  these  four  points :  the  teaching  has 
emphasized  learning  through  the  memorizing  of  informa- 
tion, rather  than  through  reasoning ;  information  has 
been  acquired  for  its  own  sake,  rather  than  as  a  means 


196        THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

to  modify  conduct ;  no  special  effort  has  been  made 
to  provide  a  natural  setting  for  the  learning ;  the 
learning  has  usually  been  realized  through  a  mastery 
of  principles  logically  arranged,  rather  than  by  develop- 
ing the  principles  as  needed  in  the  problematic  situation. 

The  project,  defined  as  a  problematic  act  carried  to 
completion  in  its  natural  setting,  provides  for  a  unit 
of  teaching  which  has  for  its  aim  the  correction  of  these 
shortcomings. 

The  teacher,  in  using  the  project  method  in  any 
given  field  of  subject  matter,  must  determine  first  what 
the  natural  setting  for  the  subject  matter  is.  In  other 
words,  it  is  necessary  at  the  outset  to  find  out  why  people 
outside  the  school  study  or  learn  this  subject  matter. 

One  of  the  first  questions  then  to  decide  is :  What 
is  the  natural  setting  for  this  unit  of  teaching  or  this 
subject?  The  material  is  taught  in  its  natural  setting 
in  the  school  if  it  is  taught  for  reasons  not  essentially 
different  from  those  causing  people  outside  the  school 
to  learn  this  subject  matter.  Once  the  teacher  deter- 
mines the  natural  setting  for  the  subject  matter,  it  is 
essential  to  the  project  method  that  the  same  natural 
setting  be  provided  in  the  school.  The  teacher  must 
decide  whether  the  material  is  learned  by  memorizing 
facts  or  by  reasoning,  and  whether  the  learning  is  an 
end  in  itself  or  for  the  purpose  of  modifying  conduct. 
It  is  an  essential  element  in  the  project  that  the  prob- 
lem be  raised  first  —  the  principles  being  learned  as 
needed  in  carrying  forward  the  solution. 


APPLICATION   OF  THE   PROJECT   METHOD      197 

A  number  of  projects  taken  from  the  elementary  and 
high  school  fields  will  be  cited  to  illustrate  the  way  in 
which  the  project  may  be  utilized  as  a  unit  of  teaching. 

There  has  been  no  attempt  on  the  writer's  part  to 
suggest  a  sufficiently  large  number  of  projects  in  any 
one  given  field  of  subject  matter  to  teach  the  entire 
subject  by  the  project  method.  The  problem  of  organ- 
izing a  whole  curriculum  on  the  project  basis  is  quite 
outside  the  province  of  this  book.  The  following  proj- 
ects are  cited  for  the  specific  purpose  of  showing  how 
the  project  method  may  be  utilized  in  any  subject. 
The  many  projects  cited  in  the  preceding  chapters 
may  be  reviewed  in  connection  with  this  chapter,  and 
since  many  references  were  made  to  agricultural  proj- 
ects, no  agricultural  projects  will  be  suggested  in  this 
chapter.  The  writer,  however,  wishes  to  call  attention 
to  R.  W.  Stimson's  recent  book,  "  Vocational  Agricul- 
tural Education  by  Home  Projects,"  published  by  The 
Macmillan  Company.  This  book  is  one  of  the  most 
comprehensive  treatments  of  any  subject  by  the  project 
method. 

The  following  projects,  unless  otherwise  credited, 
were  developed  by  experienced  teachers  who  were 
students  in  the  writer's  class  during  the  summer  of  1919 
at  the  University  of  Illinois. 

PROJECTS  m  ENGLISH 

Better  English  Week.  —  No  plan  has  been  more 
popular  in  the  teaching  of  English  composition  than 


198        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

what  is  known  as  Better  English  Week.  This  can  be 
made  into  a  real  "  live  "  project.  Certainly  no  one  will 
question  the  statement  that  better  expression  written 
or  oral  is  one  of  the  chief  aims  of  the  teaching  of  English. 
The  alert  teacher  must  stage  a  situation  where  the 
pupils  will  see  that  they  need  to  use  better  English. 
One  teacher  has  made  and  used  the  following  plan 
to  arouse  a  desire  for  better  expression  among  the 
pupils : 

About  two  or  three  weeks  before  Better  English  Week, 
she  sent  members  of  her  class  about  the  town  to  find  out 
for  themselves  if  business  men  put  much  value  on  good 
English.  Some  were  sent  to  interview  lawyers,  mer- 
chants, and  ministers.  Others  put  the  question  to 
farmers,  workmen  on  the  street,  to  the  mayor  of  the 
city,  and  so  on,  until  they  came  in  contact  with  many 
types  of  business  and  professional  men. 

They  were  asked  to  bring  back  to  class  reports  of 
their  conversations  word  for  word  as  far  as  possible. 
Some  of  the  results  plainly  indicated  that  men 
who  used  good  English  and  knew  how  to  express 
themselves  could  carry  on  a  logical  conversation  which 
could  be  repeated  point  by  point  in  good  style.  Other 
pupils  could  report  only  a  few  incoherent  sentences 
and  say  that  they  had  tried  to  get  the  ideas  or  opinions  of 
the  person  interviewed  but  that  he  did  not  seem  able 
to  express  himself.  The  class  agreed  that  the  persons 
who  used  good  English  and  expressed  themselves 
clearly  were  always  the  most  interesting  to  talk  to, 


APPLICATION   OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD      199 

and  in  almost  every  case  these  persons  were  more 
successful  in  the  business  world  than  those  who  used 
poor  English. 

When  the  class  realized  this  fact  they  verified  their  re- 
sults still  further.  They  wrote  letters  to  a  number  of 
the  most  influential  men  in  town  and  asked  each  one 
to  make  a  list  of  qualifications  which  he  thought 
essential  for  a  young  man  or  woman  to  have  who 
wished  to  get  on  well  in  the  business  world.  Nearly 
every  one  who  responded  included  good  expression  in 
the  list.  Here  was  the  place  to  introduce  business 
letter  writing.  The  pupils  saw  a  need  for  it,  were 
ready  for  it,  and  wanted  it.  The  letters  referred  to 
above  were  written  as  a  class  exercise. 

After  this  investigation  the  members  of  the  class  saw 
that  they  must  learn  to  express  themselves  well  if  they 
were  to  be  successful.  The  class  wished  to  start  a  cam- 
paign for  better  English.  The  work  was  turned  over  to 
the  pupils.  Clever  posters  and  slogans  were  made  in 
the  art  classes.  These  were  placed  in  classrooms  and 
corridors  on  the  Friday  before  Better  English  Week. 

The  members  of  the  class  jotted  down  every  error 
in  grammar  that  they  detected  in  the  classrooms  or  on 
the  school  grounds,  made  by  either  pupils  or  teachers. 
Every  one  was  very  careful  during  that  week  to 
avoid  getting  a  "  black  mark."  On  Friday  the  reports 
were  made  and  a  record  of  the  frequency  of  mistakes 
was  put  on  the  blackboard.  This  record  showed  that 
fewer  errors  were  made  during  the  latter  part  of  the 


200        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

week.  The  most  frequent  errors  were  made  in  the  use 
of  forms  of  the  verbs  to  go,  to  see,  to  do,  and  to  be, 
and  these  were  chosen  by  the  class  for  drill  work 
for  the  following  week.  The  drill  work  followed  with 
a  great  deal  of  enthusiasm. 

During  this  week  the  pupils  began  to  cultivate 
the  habit  of  observing  their  own  English.  This  was 
followed  by  a  drill  on  corrected  forms.  This  exercise 
probably  did  more  to  improve  their  English  than  the 
same  amount  of  time  devoted  to  a  formal  study  of  rules 
and  examples.  The  pupils  were  interested  and  pleased 
with  the  results.  They  asked  to  have  another  Better 
English  Week  the  next  fall. 

This  procedure  illustrates  a  project.  The  situation 
of  correcting  errors  arose  in  its  natural  setting  —  the 
making  of  errors  on  the  playground.  The  students 
proposed  drill  on  correct  forms  and  this  was  carried  to 
completion.  Information  learned  in  this  manner  will 
modify  conduct  (their  expression). 

A  Project  in  Dramatization  and  Reading.  -  -  When 
some  pupils  in  a  grade  school  asked  their  teacher  if 
they  might  give  an  entertainment  just  before  Thanks- 
giving, they  were  told  that  if  they  would  write  their 
own  play  and  present  it  their  request  would  be  granted. 

The  next  day  in  the  English  class  the  pupils  talked 
over  what  they  thought  would  be  a  good  theme  for 
their  play  and  decided  that,  since  it  was  to  be  a 
Thanksgiving  entertainment,  probably  "  The  First 
Thanksgiving "  would  be  an  appropriate  theme. 


APPLICATION   OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD      201 

Almost  immediately  one  of  the  class  who  did  much 
outside  reading  said  that  he  knew  where  to  find  some- 
thing about  the  first  Thanksgiving  and  gave  the  name 
of  the  book,  which  happened  to  be  one  of  the  supple- 
mentary readers  used  in  the  school.  The  selection 
was  assigned  for  a  reading  lesson  the  next  day.  Others 
suggested  the  names  of  other  readers  that  con- 
tained information  on  the  subject  and  these  stories 
were  read  later.  This  furnished  opportunity  for  carry- 
ing on  reading  in  its  natural  setting.  Some  brought 
books  and  magazines  from  home  and  read  them  to  the 
class,  or  told  the  story  to  the  class. 

When  the  class  thought  they  had  sufficient  knowledge 
of  the  conditions  and  circumstances  which  led  to  the 
observance  of  the  first  Thanksgiving,  they  planned 
the  writing  of  the  play.  All  had  some  idea  of  what  a 
play  should  be  as  they  had  read  plays  and  presented 
them  before.  Different  acts  or  scenes  were  decided 
upon,  prominent  characters  were  chosen,  after  which  the 
real  composition  work  was  begun. 

By  the  time  the  play  was  completed,  the  class  had 
decided  on  the  members  who  should  impersonate  the 
different  characters.  A  little  girl,  a  favorite  with  the 
class,  was  chosen  for  Priscilla ;  several  Mexican  boys 
wished  to  be  the  Indians  ;  John  Alden  was  imperson- 
ated by  a  tall  slender  boy.  Then  came  the  choosing  of 
the  costumes,  which  led  to  some  more  reading  and  to  the 
study  of  pictures.  The  Pilgrim  hats  were  made  in  the 
construction  period.  Visits  to  the  forestry  supervisor 


202         THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

were  made  to  get  permission  to  cut  down  some  small 
pine  trees  for  the  stage.  Thanksgiving  songs  were 
studied  in  the  music  period  ;  the  play  was  memorized 
in  the  language  study  period  and  practiced  in  the  read- 
ing period.  A  few  days  before  Thanksgiving,  written 
invitations  were  sent  out  by  the  pupils  to  the  children 
of  an  upper  grade  asking  them  to  be  present  at  the 
entertainment. 

This  project  cut  across  the  subjects  of  reading, 
language,  and  construction  work.  The  motive  to  carry 
out  this  project  arose  with  the  members  of  the 
class.  It  was  carried  to  completion  in  its  natural 
setting.  The  play  was  originated  and  was  given  for 
reasons  not  essentially  different  from  those  which 
would  have  prompted  the  giving  of  a  similar  play 
outside  the  school.  Many  minor  problems  arose  as 
the  project  progressed,  which  were  solved  by  the 
members  of  the  class. 

A  Project  in  Letter  Writing.  —  During  the  latter 
part  of  a  recent  school  year,  Madam  Schumann-Heink 
gave  a  concert  in  a  small  city  in  Illinois. 

The  prospect  of  her  coming  aroused  great  enthusiasm 
among  the  townspeople.  The  school  children  were 
especially  interested  since  their  music  director  used 
the  event  as  a  means  of  motivation  in  his  depart- 
ment. 

On  the  morning  of  the  date  set  for  Schumann-Heink's 
appearance,  the  writer  happened  to  be  visiting  in  a 
fourth  grade  room.  He  asked  the  pupils  whether  they 


APPLICATION   OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD      203 

would  like  to  write  letters  to  the  great  singer.  One 
may  easily  guess  their  reply  :  "  It  would  make  too  many 
letters  if  every  child  in  the  system  wrote  one,  wouldn't 
it?" 

"  Then  let  each  child  in  this  room  write  a  letter, 
have  the  best  one  selected  by  a  committee  of  teachers, 
attach  the  signatures  of  the  other  2200  children  in  the 
system,  and  send  it  to  Madam  Schumann-Heink  by 
messenger."  So  the  project  was  carried  out. 

Was  this  motivated  exercise  in  letter  writing  really 
a  project?  Is  it  possible  that  the  subject  of  letter 
writing,  which  unites  the  arts  of  penmanship  and  com- 
position, can  be  taught  by  the  project  method  or  must 
this  new  method  be  limited  to  the  manual,  agricultural, 
and  domestic  arts?  Is  it  possible  that  children 
of  the  fourth  grade  may  do  profitable  work  when 
their  work  is  thrown  into  its  "  natural  setting,"  or 
must  we  hope  for  an  application  of  this  method  in  the 
upper  grades  and  high  school  only?  The  writer  will 
attempt  to  answer  these  questions  and  similar  ones 
that  might  arise,  as  follows : 

The  project  implies  an  act  carried  to  completion 
as  against  the  passive  absorption  of  information. 

Before  the  children  began  to  write  the  letters  they 
were  given  no  information ;  the  task  consisted  only 
of  an  act  carried  to  completion  —  the  letters  were 
written  and  one  of  the  letters  was  sent  to  the  ad- 
dressee. 

The  exercise  in  question  developed  the  problematic 


204        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

situation  demanding  reasoning  rather  than  merely  the 
memorizing  of  information. 

This  was  a  problematic  situation  in  that  it  was  one 
involving  reflection,  and  it  called  into  life  the 
memorized  information  of  the  pupils  by  showing  them 
a  social  use  for  it. 

By  emphasizing  the  problematic  aspect  the  priority 
of  the  problem  over  the  statement  of  principles  is  im- 
plied. 

Thus  the  exercise  paved  the  way  for  the  restatement  of 
principles  already  learned  and  gave  a  strong  reason 
for  learning  more  about  letter  writing. 

The  exercise  made  provision  for  the  natural  setting 
of  problems  rather  than  an  artificial  setting. 

The  schoolroom  is  as  natural  a  setting  for  letter  writ- 
ing as  any  other ;  witness  the  surreptitious  letters  writ- 
ten by  older  pupils  and  teachers  in  this  setting.  The 
school  is  frequently  a  more  natural  setting  for  letter 
writing  than  the  home. 

What  Poems  Written  during  the  Great  War  Will  Live  ?  1 
—  The  project  of  collecting  poems  of  the  Great 
War  originated  in  a  desire  to  have  informal 
recitations,  to  cultivate  home  reading,  to  stimulate  a 
love  for  poetry,  and  to  form  a  connecting  link  between 
the  school  and  the  home. 

War  and  anything  related  to  it  held  the  center  of 
the  stage  in  the  autumn  of  1918.  The  literature  of  the 

1  A  project  developed  and  reported  by  Mrs.  Mary  M.  Pierce,  teacher 
of  the  sixth  grade,  Henry  Freeman  School,  Rockford,  Illinois. 


APPLICATION   OF  THE   PROJECT   METHOD      205 

war,  particularly  the  poetry,  was  read  by  all.  Some  of 
the  collections  were  worth  while,  others  were  not.  The 
class  decided  to  make  its  own  collection. 

The  children  were  asked  to  read  several  poems  and 
bring  their  favorites  to  class.  They  brought  in  several 
score,  which  were  read  to  the  class  with  comments. 
Some  were  read  many  times.  The  class  measured 
every  selection  by  two  rules  :  Has  it  enduring  thought  ? 
Is  it  well  expressed  ?  In  order  to  carry  on  this  sifting 
process,  the  class  was  divided  into  groups,  each  group 
with  a  leader,  for  the  purpose  of  reading,  comparing, 
and  discussing  the  poems.  Each  poem  which  went  in- 
to the  final  collection  was  voted  on  by  the  class. 

We  found  in  this  work  abundant  opportunity  to 
discuss  such  topics  as  the  brotherhood  of  man 
as  exemplified  in  the  war,  and  as  a  strong  factor  in 
modern  civic  and  industrial  lif e ;  the  worth  of  true 
manhood  in  every  walk  of  life ;  sacrifice  for  country ; 
honor  of  flag ;  citizenship  ;  woman  suffrage  ;  and  other 
related  topics. 

This  final  collection  of  poems  was  printed  as  a 
booklet  and  these  books  have  gone  into  the  homes  and 
have  been  read  by  the  children's  families. 

Following  this  work  of  selection  and  the  printing  of 
the  material,  the  pupils  spent  a  few  months  in 
reading  some  of  the  world's  standard  poetry,  selections 
from  Whitman,  the  Carys,  Wordsworth,  and  Long- 
fellow. The  results  showed  that  this  project  developed 
in  them  a  love  and  an  appreciation  for  the  standard 
selections. 

PROJECTS  IN  Civics 

A  Project  in  Community  Civics. — This  project 
is  a  rather  comprehensive  one,  and  in  working  out  the 


206        THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

details  it  will  require  much  thought  and  time,  but  it 
represents  a  contemplated  plan  to  be  carried  out  within 
the  school  year  as  a  basis  for  an  eighteen-weeks 
course  in  Community  Civics  in  a  community  with  a 
population  of  a  hundred  thousand.  The  whole  proj- 
ect includes  the  preparation  of  a  pamphlet  in- 
tended to  develop,  by  actual  investigation  on 
the  part  of  eighth  and  ninth  grade  pupils,  three 
sets  of  facts  about  the  city  in  which  they  live : 
(l)  What  is  the  existing  state  of  civic  affairs  in  my 
city?  (2)  How  does  this  compare  with  that  of 
other  cities  of  similar  size  and  industrial  conditions? 
(3)  What  needs  to  be  done  in  "my  generation" 
(meaning  the  pupil's  period  of  service  as  a  citizen  just 
beginning)  to  make  it  the  best  possible  city  of  its 
size? 

The  whole  preparation  of  a  summary  of  this  kind 
could  not  be  done,  perhaps,  in  less  than  three  or  four 
years,  if  worked  upon  by  pupils  all  over  the  city.  To 
make  concrete  one  year's  work  as  a  beginning,  the 
best  plan  is  to  have  the  pupils  prepare  a  survey  of  the 
civic  life  of  the  section  of  the  city  in  which  the  school 
is  located,  presenting  facts  regarding  the  labor  condi- 
tions, the  recreational  facilities,  the  transportation 
facilities,  and  health  conditions.  In  eighteen  weeks 
the  pupils  should  be  able  to  examine  these  four 
problems  for  their  district  as  a  work  in  civics  and  to 
embody  the  results  in  a  pamphlet. 

How  Can  We  Best  Americanize  Foreign  People  in 


APPLICATION   OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD      207 

Rockford  ?l  —  A  few  months  ago,  in  our  history  class  at 
the  Blake  School,  we  were  discussing  the  causes  operat- 
ing against  the  Americanization  of  the  recent  immigrant 
population  in  our  country.  We  discussed  the  plans 
utilized  by  the  national  government  to  assimilate  this 
great  foreign  element.  A  long,  interesting  discussion, 
centering  around  the  living  conditions  and  character- 
istics of  our  foreign  group,  followed. 

From  a  study  of  the  national  problem  of  immigra- 
tion and  its  influence  on  national  life,  the  class  brought 
up  the  question  of  the  influence  of  immigration  on  the 
problems  of  city  life.  The  question  of  what  the  nation 
was  doing  to  assimilate  the  foreign  element  brought  the 
class  face  to  face  with  this  local  problem  :  "  What  can 
Rockford  do  to  Americanize  its  foreign  people  ?  " 

In  order  to  accumulate  material  bearing  on 
the  problem  and  to  have  a  general  working  knowl- 
edge of  the  distribution  of  the  foreign  element  in 
our  city,  two  boys  offered  to  serve  on  a  committee  of 
investigation  and  to  make  a  general  survey  of  our  alien 
population  and  their  problems.  By  consulting  the 
heads  of  churches,  the  school  census,  and  naturaliza- 
tion courts  they  found  that  our  problem  concerned 
more  the  peoples  from  southern  Europe  ;  indeed,  in  our 
own  district,  approximately  thirty-two  per  cent  of  the 
children  represented  homes  in  which  one  or  both  of  the 
parents  were  immigrants  from  this  section.  We  tried  to 

1  A  project  developed  by  Laura  E.  Ryan,  teacher  of  the  seventh 
grade,  Blake  School,  Rockford,  Illinois. 


208        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

find  out  not  only  why  they  came  to  America,  but 
some  of  the  problems  that  they  had  to  meet.  The 
library  was  a  great  help  in  securing  information  and, 
as  each  child  brought  before  the  class  the  results  of  his 
reading,  we  acquired  a  great  deal  of  information  bear- 
ing on  the  subject. 

The  Italians,  Greeks,  Lithuanians,  and  other  foreign 
children  in  our  midst  furnished  additional  information. 
One  little  Lithuanian  boy,  scarcely  ten  years  old,  on 
being  asked  why  his  father  came  to  America,  wrote : 
"  My  father  was  born  in  Russia.  When  he  was  a 
little  boy  the  Czar  would  not  let  people  get  an  educa- 
tion. We  had  some  cousins  in  America.  They  wrote 
to  him.  They  said  there  was  a  good  government  here. 
So  he  came  and  worked  in  a  coal  mine  in  central 
Illinois.  At  night  he  went  to  night  school  and  took 
out  his  citizenship  papers.  He  would  not  go  back  to 
Russia  for  anything.  He  has  a  lifetime  job."  Another 
girl  born  in  Italy  gave  us  some  valuable  information 
in  regard  to  the  characteristics  of  the  Italian  race  and 
of  the  way  the  foreign-born  child  is  Americanized  in 
the  public  school  by  coming  in  touch  with  American  life. 

This  study  of  the  characteristics  of  our  foreign 
population  created  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  boys  and 
girls  to  learn  more.  The  resources  of  the  public  library 
were  then  drawn  upon.  Each  child  was  urged  to 
carry  a  notebook  and  to  jot  down  interesting  things 
bearing  on  our  problem.  It  was  a  source  of  great 
satisfaction  to  me  to  find  them  so  enthusiastic  over  the 


APPLICATION   OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD      209 

books  that  they  were  reading,  — "  The  Immigrant 
and  the  Community,"  by  Abbott ;  "  The  Promised 
Land,"  by  Mary  Antin ;  and  the  "  Making  of  an 
American,"  by  Jacob  Riis.  Various  articles  bearing 
on  the  problem  from  some  of  our  leading  magazines 
were  brought  into  class  for  discussion.  We  found 
articles  in  the  Literary  Digest  and  similar  publications, 
and  the  Americanization  pamphlets  published  by  the 
Department  of  the  Interior  very  helpful. 

We  next  made  an  inventory  of  all  the  agencies  in 
the  city  that  might  help  to  bring  about  an  early 
assimilation  of  these  people  who  in  most  cases  are 
eager  to  learn  but  have  never  had  the  opportunity. 
On  enumerating  the  forces,  the  public  library,  evening 
schools,  factories,  social  centers,  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce, churches,  moving  pictures,  kindergartens, 
and  newspapers  were  all  mentioned.  The  pur- 
pose was  to  endeavor  to  inspire  the  foreign  people  of 
our  neighborhood,  through  their  children,  with  the 
spirit  of  American  ideals  and  American  citizenship. 
Believing  that  the  most  important  service  the  Ameri- 
canization worker  can  give  to  the  foreign-born  is  to 
personify  the  best  that  America  has  to  offer  these 
children,  the  future  citizens  of  Rockford  were  shown 
that  it  was  their  duty  and  obligation,  by  living  up  to 
the  highest  ideals,  to  make  the  immigrants'  absorption 
into  citizenship  possible.  As  one  of  the  strongest 
bonds  of  Americanism  is  unity  of  language,  it  became 
the  aim  of  the  child  to  speak  the  English  language  in 


210         THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

the  home,  that  the  parents  might  learn  the  duties  and 
obligations  of  Americans. 

Our  class  numbered  twenty-two  children.  We  di- 
vided it  into  committees  of  two  to  interview  the  heads 
of  the  social  welfare  organizations,  in  order  to  find 
out  what  they  were  doing  and  planning  to  do.  In 
nearly  every  case  the  committees  met  with  ready 
response  and  received  many  helpful  suggestions. 
Through  their  investigations  the  pupils  had  already 
become  acquainted  with  many  city  officials.  Through- 
out our  entire  study  of  the  projects  concerning  com- 
munity welfare  there  was  constant  interest  and  a  keen 
desire  to  know  more.  I  should  like  to  quote  here  the 
report  brought  in  by  the  two  girls  who  visited  the 
Social  Settlement  to  find  out  the  nature  of  the  work 
they  were  doing : 

"  On  Saturday  afternoon  we  paid  a  visit  to  the  two 
social  centers,  and  found  each  engaged  in  doing  a  valu- 
able work.  The  Montague  House  under  the  supervi- 
sion of  the  Rockford  Woman's  Club,  and  St.  Elizabeth's 
under  the  Catholic  Woman's  League,  through  their 
work  with  the  little  children  in  the  kindergarten  and 
the  mother  in  the  home,  have  accomplished  great  good. 
These  people  at  the  settlement  are  surely  doing  their 
part  in  the  assimilation  of  the  foreign  homes.  They 
also  told  us  that  every  woman  in  the  Rockford  Woman's 
Club  had  planned  to  make  friends  with  at  least  one 
foreign-born  resident  and  work  for  American  standards 
of  living.  While  we  were  at  these  centers  we  had  a 
chance  to  see  the  little  foreign  children  at  work. 


APPLICATION  OF  THE   PROJECT   METHOD      211 

The  woman  in  charge  urged  us  to  tell  all  the  little 
foreign  children  in  our  midst  about  the  social  center." 

This  research  work  carried  on  by  the  children  had 
an  important  bearing  on  our  subject.  Our  next  step 
was  to  get  in  touch  with  what  other  cities  were  doing, 
to  find  what  standard  had  been  attained  in  other 
communities.  Each  child  wrote  a  letter  to  the  Cham- 
ber of  Commerce  of  some  city  interested  in  the  work 
of  Americanization,  the  problems  of  which  were  similar 
to  our  own.  Here  is  a  sample  of  one  of  the  letters  sent 
by  one  of  the  children  to  the  Chamber  of  Commerce 

of  Cleveland  : 

Rockford,  Illinois, 
April  9th,  1919. 
Chamber  of  Commerce, 

Cleveland,  Ohio. 
Dear  Sirs : 

Our  history  class  at  Blake  School  in  Rockford  is  trying  to 
get  in  touch  with  what  other  cities  are  doing  in  the  way  of 
Americanization.  We  heard  that  Cleveland  had  been  carrying 
on  the  work  for  several  years.  Would  you  kindly  give  us  some 
suggestions  ? 

Yours  very  truly, 

In  a  few  days  this  little  girl  was  very  much  pleased  to 
receive  a  reply  from  the  Cleveland  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce telling  of  Cleveland's  method  of  Americanization. 
The  books  we  received  from  Cleveland  were  very  help- 
ful. The  work  there  seemed  to  center  around  two 
divisions :  first,  bringing  the  foreign-born  home  into 
closer  touch  with  the  language,  customs,  and  ideals  of 


212        THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

America  ;  and  second,  giving  to  the  native-born  Ameri- 
can an  understanding  of  the  racial  and  political  sym- 
pathies of  the  foreign-born.  Other  cities  sent  helpful 
information.  In  this  way  each  child  had  a  chance  to 
become  personally  acquainted  with  the  social  service 
work  in  other  cities  and  brought  much  valuable  infor- 
mation to  the  class. 

After  this  discussion  the  question  naturally  arises 
as  to  what  this  study  of  Americanization  will  lead. 
What  value  will  it  bring  to  the  individual  child? 
So  far  I  have  attempted  to  show  you  that,  in  the 
solution  of  our  problem,  subject  matter  was  developed, 
the  work  was  motivated,  and  that  research  work 
was  carried  on  by  the  children.  I  shall  try  to  show 
the  definite  outcome  of  the  problem  and  its  value  as 
a  training  in  citizenship  and  practical  efficiency. 

The  class,  as  a  direct  result  of  our  project,  has 
formed  an  Americanization  Club  for  the  purpose  of 
getting  better  acquainted  with  the  people  of  the 
neighborhood.  This  club  was  very  fortunate  in  secur- 
ing the  chairman  of  the  Americanization  Committee  of 
the  Daughters  of  the  American  Revolution  to  speak 
at  one  of  the  meetings.  She  not  only  talked  to  the 
class  on  the  local  problems,  but  brought  great  inspira- 
tion and  help  by  inviting  the  class  to  witness  the 
impressive  ceremony  of  conferring  final  citizenship  on 
fifty  aliens.  Many  members  of  the  class  were  present 
and  felt,  after  witnessing  the  naturalization  ceremony,  a 
greater  desire  not  only  to  urge  the  taking  out  of  citizen- 


APPLICATION   OF  THE   PROJECT   METHOD     213 

ship  papers,  but  to  have  some  share  in  the  Americaniza- 
tion of  the  new  citizens. 

These  boys  and  girls  have  acquired  first-hand 
knowledge  of  some  of  the  life  conditions  of  our  city. 
Their  investigations  have  brought  the  right  attitudes 
towards  life.  All  the  boys  and  girls  have  a  greater 
interest  in  public  problems,  have  a  desire  to  read  more 
along  these  lines,  are  filled  with  a  desire  to  serve.  I 
shall  feel  that  the  social  aims  for  which  it  was  intended, 
good  citizenship  and  practical  efficiency,  have  been 
attained  if,  in  their  Americanization  Club,  they  will 
endeavor  to  continue  the  good  work  by  helping  to 
arouse  public  opinion  and  by  keeping  in  touch  with 
the  best  efforts  of  other  communities.  This  working 
together  is  one  of  the  best  influences  for  good  citizen- 
ship. The  mutual  understanding  and  appreciation  of 
the  foreigner  in  our  midst  cannot  help  being  of 
benefit  to  the  community  in  which  we  live.  This 
problem  led  to  social  service  by  showing  the  children 
how  they  might  cooperate,  not  only  to  bring  about 
better  conditions  in  their  own  city,  but  to  further  the 
high  spirit  of  good  citizenship  —  the  goal  of  education. 

If  through  the  study  of  Americanization  the  class 
become  interested  in  other  community  problems,  if 
they  realize  the  necessity  for  really  Americanizing  the 
foreigners  in  our  midst,  they  will  be  ready  in  the 
years  to  come  to  vote  intelligently  and  to  do  their  part 
in  furthering  the  growth  of  democracy  and  democratic 
ideas  of  government. 


214        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

Another  Project  in  Community  Civics.  —  The  follow- 
ing account  of  a  school  experience  furnishes  an  excel- 
lent example  of  a  project  in  civics. 

The  high  school  had  no  playground  readily  accessible. 
A  vacant  lot  adjoining  the  school  campus  was  all  that 
the  boys  had  for  a  playground.  The  lot  passed  into 
the  hands  of  a  man  who  was  not  interested  in  boys. 
He  posted  "  Keep  out  "  signs  at  every  corner  and  in- 
formed the  principal  that  the  boys  were  to  play  on  the 
lot  no  more.  The  next  day  the  signs  were  all  gone  and 
the  boys  went  to  play  as  before. 

The  boys  were  taken  to  task  by  the  principal. 
They  maintained  that  they  were  not  injuring  the  lot 
and  that  they  ought  to  be  allowed  to  play  on  it.  The 
principal  agreed  with  them  in  that  contention,  but 
showed  them  that  they  were  going  about  the  matter 
in  the  wrong  manner.  He  suggested  that  the  boys 
petition  the  board  to  buy  the  lot  for  a  playground. 
The  boys  readily  fell  in  with  the  suggestion.  It  was 
decided  that  it  would  be  wise  to  consult  the  owner 
first  to  see  for  what  price  he  would  sell  the  lot.  A 
committee  waited  upon  the  owner  and  succeeded  in 
getting  from  him  even  better  terms  than  they  had 
hoped  for.  They  then  went  to  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion with  a  proposition,  and,  by  dint  of  good  manage- 
ment and  good  luck,  accomplished  their  purpose.  The 
whole  situation  was  carried  through  in  such  a  way 
that  the  boys  came  to  have  a  higher  respect  for  law 
and  order  than  before,  and  to  know  more  about  the 


APPLICATION   OF  THE   PROJECT  METHOD      215 

ins  and  outs  of  business.     This  situation  was  referred 
to  from  time  to  time  in  the  civics  class.1 

PROJECTS  IN  HYGIENE 

Anti-Fly  Campaign.  —  I  have  not  personally  carried 
this  project  to  completion  in  my  own  school  work. 
Once,  while  teaching  a  high  school  class  in  physiology, 
I  did  some  of  the  preliminary  work,  but,  through 
inability  or  ignorance  of  the  technique  of  project 
teaching,  I  was  unable  to  complete  the  unit.  The 
identical  project  was  carried  out  by  Mr.  J.  L.  Pricer 
in  his  normal  school  classes  in  biology  at  the  Illinois 
State  Normal  University.  While  I  am  not  indebted 
to  Mr.  Pricer  for  the  idea,  the  project  as  reported  here 
is  essentially  as  he  carried  it  out,  and  his  experience,  as 
I  have  heard  him  relate  it,  together  with  my  own 
observation  of  the  work,  is  evidence  that  the  plan  is 
workable  and  worth  while  from  the  standpoint  of  (l) 
immediate  results,  (2)  interest  on  the  part  of  students, 
and  (3)  information  in  biology  derived  by  the  students. 

A  project  of  this  nature  cuts  across  several  subjects 
in  the  curriculum  and  might  for  this  reason  be  under- 
taken with  profit  in  any  of  these  courses,  or  perhaps 
best  in  all  of  them,  if  the  cooperation  of  the  several 
teachers  can  be  secured.  If  the  project  arises  in 

1  Attention  should  be  called  to  two  bulletins  "  The  Teaching  of 
Community  Civics"  and  "Civic  Education  in  Elementary  Schools  as 
Illustrated  in  Indianapolis  "  published  by  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Education. 
There  are  many  suggested  projects  in  community  civics  outlined  in 
these  bulletins. 


210        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

biology,  the  biology  teacher  will,  in  summing  up  the 
work  at  the  close  of  the  course,  emphasize  the  prin- 
ciples that  apply  to  his  field.  The  project  might  arise 
in  a  course  in  hygiene,  in  which  case  the  principles 
emphasized  will  be  slightly  different.  It  is  conceivable 
that  the  identical  project  could  arise  in  journalism, 
physiology,  domestic  science,  or  even  in  manual  train- 
ing. It  seems  to  me  that  it  belongs  primarily  to  com- 
munity civics  in  the  discussion  of  public  health.  In 
its  various  ramifications  it  should  utilize  material  from 
other  subjects  suitable  to  the  purpose.  It  will  in  this 
way  illustrate  clearly  the  complexity  of  many  prob- 
lems in  social  science. 

The  plan  of  the  fly  campaign,  the  slogan  of  which 
was  "  Make  Normal  a  Flyless  Town,"  occurred  to 
Mr.  Pricer  as  a  means  of  vitalizing  the  work  in  his 
biology  classes.  He  knew  the  life  history  of  the  fly 
and  its  common  breeding  places,  also  the  means  of 
preventing  breeding.  With  this  knowledge  he  believed 
he  had  a  real  message.  This  he  gave  to  his  classes  and 
he  said  "  they  appeared  to  understand."  He  therefore 
expected  great  results  when  these  students  went  out 
into  teaching.  But  years  went  by  and  no  such  results 
appeared.  He  therefore  reviewed  his  work  to  find  out 
what  was  the  matter,  and  concluded  that  his  students 
discounted  his  teaching,  since  he  himself  had  not 
accomplished  such  results.  He  then  laid  the  plans  to 
make  the  community  flyless. 

The  work  started  in  the  normal  school  classes  during 


APPLICATION   OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD      217 

the  winter  term.  The  students  were  instructed  as  to 
the  facts  about  flies  in  view  of  the  coming  campaign. 
The  plan  was  appropriately  advertised  among  the 
students  and  faculty  members  likely  to  be  called  upon 
for  any  part  of  the  work.  Since  it  was  conceived  that 
the  cooperation  of  the  children  would  be  advantageous, 
the  plan  was  presented  in  the  training  school  by  the 
student  teachers.  It  was  considered  important  that 
no  one  should  engage  in  the  propaganda  work  who  did 
not  himself  understand  the  problem. 

It  so  happened  that  Normal  at  this  time  possessed 
a  unique  weekly  newspaper,  supported  entirely  by  ad- 
vertising and  delivered  free  of  charge  to  every  house 
in  town,  —  a  "free  lance"  publication  which  could 
take  up  any  policy  without  fear  of  offending  subscribers. 
The  cooperation  of  the  editor  was  secured  and  numer- 
ous short  paragraphs  and  articles  on  flies  were  inserted 
with  the  news.  As  everybody  in  town  read  the 
"  Normalite,"  everybody  soon  knew  of  the  campaign. 

As  a  further  assurance  that  every  one  should  know 
and  understand  the  plan,  the  students  divided  the 
town  into  districts  and  to  each  district  an  individual 
was  assigned  to  make  a  sanitary  survey.  In  so  far  as 
possible  the  more  diplomatic  of  the  students  were 
chosen  for  this  work.  The  student  made  a  call  at 
each  home  in  his  district.  He  announced  the  purpose 
of  his  call  in  the  interest  of  the  fly  campaign  and  further 
explained  the  plan.  He  then  volunteered  to  assist  the 
householder  by  looking  over  his  premises  and  pointing 


218        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

out  the  places  that  needed  cleaning.  It  had  been 
previously  arranged  with  the  University  farm  manage- 
ment to  supply  wagons  to  haul  away  all  manure  placed 
on  the  alleys,  as  it  could  be  used  on  the  farm,  and  the 
city  authorities  provided  means  of  hauling  away  all 
tin  cans,  bottles,  and  other  rubbish.  The  student,  if 
necessary,  emphasized  the  fact  that  everybody  else 
was  joining  in  the  campaign  and  that  premises  might 
be  listed  as  sources  of  infection  in  case  they  were 
not  cleaned  up.  If  the  householder  absolutely  refused 
to  have  anything  to  do  with  the  plan,  the  place  was 
surveyed  at  safe  distance  in  spite  of  this  refusal  and 
the  conditions  noted  were  thus  made  a  matter  of 
record  at  headquarters.  Business  houses  were  like- 
wise interviewed. 

At  about  this  time  a  Congressman  from  the  dis- 
trict, hearing  of  the  campaign,  wrote  Mr.  Pricer  of 
certain  government  publications  and  volunteered  to 
send  them  to  every  home  in  town  if  the  addresses  could 
be  supplied.  Mr.  Pricer  supplied  him  with  a  telephone 
book  and  each  subscriber  received  the  literature. 

When  spring  opened,  a  clean-up  week  was  desig- 
nated. The  wagons  were  at  hand  and  kept  busy. 
Incidentally,  the  University  farm  received  a  great  deal 
of  free  fertilizer.  As  it  was  found  unsafe  to  allow 
manure  to  accumulate  for  more  than  a  week,  trips  were 
made  weekly  by  the  wagons  and  the  manure  was 
scattered  on  the  cornfields,  where,  exposed  to  sun- 
light, it  no  longer  formed  a  breeding  place.  A  few 


APPLICATION   OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD      219 

people  who  at  first  refused  to  cooperate,  seeing  the 
advantages  of  the  campaign,  were  glad  to  come  in. 
By  the  end  of  the  summer,  only  one  man  was  known  to 
oppose  the  work,  and  this  because  he  had  some  pigs 
and  did  not  see  how  they  could  be  kept  clean. 

A  difficulty  was  experienced  at  the  University  dairy 
barn  where  flies  persisted  in  spite  of  many  traps  and 
the  weekly  cleanings.  But  it  was  determined  that 
the  University  should  not  be  the  "  slacker,"  so  clean- 
ings were  made  daily.  This  also  added  to  the  assur- 
ance of  clean  milk  from  that  dairy. 

A  problem  remaining  unsolved,  according  to  Mr. 
Pricer,  was  that  of  the  vacant-lot  cow  pasture,  a  few 
of  which  existed  in  and  near  the  town.  A  special 
study  of  this  problem  was  made  by  the  students.  It 
was  noted  that  the  usual  cow  fly  differs  somewhat 
from  the  common  house  fly,  but  to  all  appearance  it 
is  equally  capable  of  carrying  disease.  An  experiment 
was  performed  in  one  of  these  cow  pastures  by  placing 
a  wire  cage  over  a  pile  of  droppings  that  had  been 
exposed  to  flies.  After  flies  had  hatched,  the  cage  was 
removed  and  the  contents  scalded.  More  than  four 
hundred  flies  were  counted.  The  most  feasible  solu- 
tion of  this  problem  was  found  to  be  that  of  having  a 
brood  of  chickens  or  a  few  pigs  follow  the  cows.  By 
working  in  the  manure  they  scattered  it,  and  by  ex- 
posing it  to  sunlight  prevented  much  of  the  breeding. 

An  interesting  problem  developed  in  the  calculation 
of  the  distance  that  an  adult  fly  travels  from  the  breed- 


220        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

ing  place.  Horseflies  have  been  observed  to  travel 
long  distances  while  following  the  animals.  It  was 
concluded,  however,  that  the  distance  traveled  by  the 
house  fly  was  comparatively  short  since  the  town  of 
Normal  borders  on  Bloomington,  where  similar  pre- 
cautions were  not  taken,  yet  this  fact  did  not  materi- 
ally affect  the  success  of  the  Normal  project. 

Correlated  with  the  work  of  the  fly,  the  normal 
school  classes  studied  other  insects  and  the  interest  ran 
high.  The  problem  of  insects  as  disease  carriers  was 
easily  covered  and  the  principles  of  entomology  were 
amply  illustrated.  The  results  were  evident.  The 
principles  learned  were  summarized  in  the  classes,  their 
relations  to  life  problems  being  evident. 

As  stated  at  the  beginning  of  this  paper,  we  believe 
that  this  project  arises  most  naturally  in  community 
civics.  The  civics  teacher  will  emphasize  different 
principles :  the  nature  of  the  organization,  coopera- 
tion, the  influence  of  the  press,  and  other  similar 
features.  Biological  facts  will  receive  attention  only 
when  a  knowledge  of  them  is  necessary  to  accomplish 
the  purposes  of  the  work.  The  various  points  of 
contact  of  the  social  sciences  are,  by  definition,  as 
varied  as  the  experiences  of  life  itself.  No  clearer 
illustration  of  this  could  be  found  than  by  taking 
such  a  project  and  carrying  it  to  completion. 

Prevention  of  Communicable  Disease.  —  The  routine 
of  school  procedure  frequently  calls  for  instruction  in 
health  matters  when  the  need  is  only  potential.  As  a 


APPLICATION   OF  THE   PROJECT   METHOD      221 

result,  when  the  situation  arises  the  facts  memorized 
are  either  forgotten  or  fail  through  lack  of  initial  mo- 
tivation to  carry  over  into  action.  It  is  a  common 
spectacle  to  find  the  individual  who  has  received  such 
instruction  helpless  in  the  face  of  a  real  situation. 
There  may  be  few  instances  in  which  disease  problems 
may  be  studied  at  first  hand,  yet  it  seems  to  the 
writer  that  the  following  opportunity  is  so  evident 
that  it  should  not  be  overlooked  by  the  wide-awake 
schoolmaster. 

It  is  a  matter  of  common  observation  that  an  epi- 
demic of  some  sort  occurs  among  school  children  prac- 
tically every  year.  This  may  be  made  the  basis  of  a 
project  in  public  health. 

Assume  that  the  epidemic,  or  threatened  epidemic, 
is  the  very  common  one  of  measles.  This  is  a  highly 
contagious  disease  affecting  children  primarily,  and  is 
responsible  for  a  goodly  proportion  of  the  child  mor- 
tality as  well  as  for  numerous  more  or  less  serious 
after-effects.  The  epidemic  commonly  starts  by  single 
cases.  This  is  the  time  for  activity  on  the  part  of 
the  school  authorities,  who  may  frequently  prevent 
much  suffering  by  prompt  action.  The  children  of  the 
school  may  be  organized  for  a  project,  the  result  of 
which  will  be  that  the  facts  of  prevention,  treatment, 
and  final  disinfection  will  be  forcibly  impressed  on  their 
minds. 

When  the  first  case  of  measles  appears,  the  sanitary- 
facts  relative  to  the  disease  should  be  taken  up  in  the 


222         THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

school  classes  and  explained  to  the  children  in  simple 
language.  When  the  children  understand  in  part  the 
nature  of  the  disease  they  may,  through  a  committee, 
call  upon  the  health  officer  and  offer  their  services  in 
preventing  the  spread  of  the  disease.  It  would  be  a 
foolish  health  officer  who  would  refuse  an  offer  of  this 
value. 

The  tactful  teacher  will  see  to  it  by  previous  con- 
ference with  the  health  officer  that  he  has  at  hand  the 
pamphlets  issued  by  the  state  department  of  health 
relative  to  measles.  These  give,  for  the  informa- 
tion of  the  public,  the  legal  provisions  and  also  facts 
that  will  be  of  use  in  controlling  the  disease.  The 
health  officer  could,  at  this  time,  express  his  appre- 
ciation of  the  offer  and  explain  to  the  children  some 
medical  facts  that  will  assist  them  in  avoiding  the 
disease.  The  nature  and  necessity  of  quarantine  will 
be  clearly  understood  and  the  whole-hearted  support 
of  the  children  will  assure  the  carrying  out  of  its  pro- 
visions. This  literature  may  be  used  as  the  basis  of 
the  physiology  recitations  until  the  children  under- 
stand it.  The  children  should  be  pledged  not  to  vio- 
late the  provisions  of  the  quarantine  nor  the  provisions 
of  the  law  in  case  any  one  of  them  contracts  the  disease. 
They  will  be  cautioned  as  to  the  dangers  arising  from 
failure  to  heed  the  precautions  pointed  out  by  the 
state  board  of  health  in  its  literature.  Through  the 
children,  parents  may  learn  of  their  part  in  preventing 
the  spread  of  the  disease  and  difficulties  need  not 


APPLICATION   OF  THE   PROJECT  METHOD     223 

arise  in  connection  with  failure  to  obey  the  law  because 
it  was  not  understood. 

As  the  occasion  may  not  be  propitious  to  study  all 
communicable  diseases  in  this  way,  this  will  be  a  fitting 
time  to  make  a  general  summary  on  contagious  diseases. 
A  suggested  outline  for  the  study  of  each  disease  is  as 
follows : 

I.    Source  of  infection. 
II.   Agents  of  infection. 

a.  Contact,    b.  Droplets,    c.  Water,    d.  Milk. 
e.  Air.    /.  Other  agents. 

III.  Conditions  favoring  infection. 

IV.  Care  of  the  patient. 
V.   Precautions. 

a.  Quarantine.     6.  Disinfection,     c.  When  to 
call  the  physician,     d.  Final  disinfection. 
VI.   Duration  of  the  disease. 

A  summary  on  communicable  diseases  issued  by  the 
United  States  Public  Health  Service  may  be  used  at 
this  time  and  left  with  the  pupils  for  future  reference. 

An  Anti-Sneeze  Campaign.1  — "  Just  after  the 
Christmas  holidays,  school  attendance  was  seriously 
interfered  with  by  an  epidemic  of  severe  colds,  grip, 
and  similar  respiratory  diseases.  Nor  were  pupils 
in  school  the  only  sufferers.  Probably  seventy-five 
per  cent  of  the  people  were  incapacitated  for  or 
seriously  handicapped  in  their  regular  occupations  by 

1  Project  developed  by  Mae  Creswell,  Supervising  Critic,  Iowa 
State  Teachers'  College.  Edited  by  C.  W.  Stone,  Iowa  State  Teachers' 
College. 


224        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OP   TEACHING 

these  maladies.  The  basis  for  this  statement  is  reports 
from  the  homes  given  by  pupils  in  the  school.  Pneu- 
monia claimed  many  elderly  people  for  its  victims. 
And  this  community  was  not  alone  in  its  suffering. 
'  The  grip  '  became  a  matter  of  serious  concern  from 
New  York  to  the  Pacific. 

"  Since  boys  and  girls  as  well  as  grown  people  were 
instrumental  in  spreading  the  disease,  it  was  deemed 
advisable  to  devote  some  time  in  school  to  the  study  of 
the  means  of  avoiding  the  increase  of  the  contagion. 
The  work  was  known  as  the  Anti-Sneeze  Campaign. 
Certain  phases  -of  the  study  were  taken  up  in  each 
grade. 

"  The  usual  procedure  was  a  discussion  led  by  the 
teacher.  Then  the  pupils  made  further  use  of  the 
information  gained,  in  language  or  composition  and 
drawing.  First  the  census  of  the  prevalence  of  the 
disease  was  taken.  The  following  furnishes  an  ex- 
ample of  the  lesson  for  the  fifth  grade  : 

"  '  There  are  many,  many  tiny  plants  in  the  world, 
so  tiny  that  if  we  look  at  them  with  a  microscope  that 
makes  them  from  300  to  500  times  as  large  as  they 
really  are,  they  look  then  only  specks.  They  are 
of  many  shapes,  some  rodlike,  some  round,  some  cork- 
screw-shaped, and  so  clear  as  to  resemble  a  tiny  bit  of 
gelatine.  Nor  are  they  green  at  all  as  you  expect 
plants  to  be.  They  are  called  bacteria.  Some  of  them 
are  useful,  as  the  ones  that  our  mothers  or  the  bakers 
put  in  our  bread  to  make  it  rise.  Another  kind  causes 
milk  to  sour;  another  causes  waste  substances  to  be 


APPLICATION   OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD      225 

broken  up,  decay  we  say,  so  other  plants  can  again  use 
the  material.  A  few  kinds  are  harmful  and  are  known 
as  disease  germs.  One  kind  causes  grip,  another  diph- 
theria, another  tonsilitis,  while  pneumonia  and  abscesses 
in  the  ear  are  caused  by  other  germs.  Many  other 
diseases  that  we  call  contagious  are  due  to  germs. 

"  '  These  germs  increase  very  rapidly  when  they  have 
proper  conditions.  You  remember  how  soon  the  bread 
rises  after  the  yeast  is  put  in  it.  One  tiny  plant 
may  become  fifty  or  even  a  hundred  in  an  hour's  time. 
Disease  germs  need  to  be  kept  at  body  temperature  and 
require  body  tissue  for  food.  Sunshine  is  fatal  to  them, 
hence  they  find  the  inside  of  our  noses,  throats,  and  lungs 
well  suited  to  their  development.  Enlarged  tonsils 
and  adenoid  growths  make  such  good  places  for  these 
germs  to  grow  that  doctors  are  anxious  to  have  the 
adenoids  removed  and  often  the  tonsils. 

" '  A  healthy  nose  and  throat  is  warm  enough  and 
moist  enough  for  the  germs  to  grow,  but  their  food  is 
lacking.  Just  let  us  take  cold  by  leaving  off  our  rub- 
bers some  sloppy  day  or  in  some  other  way,  and  the 
blood  rushes  from  our  skin,  hands,  and  feet  and  clogs 
the  blood  tubes  in  our  noses  and  throats.  The  delicate 
linings  of  the  nose  and  throat  become  swollen,  very 
red,  and  an  abundance  of  mucus  is  secreted.  We  say, 
"  My  nose  runs."  These  red  swollen  linings  form  good 
places  to  grow  colonies  of  disease  germs.  A  few  germs 
come  floating  along  in  the  air  we  breathe  and  finding 
so  good  a  place  to  grow  lose  no  time  in  getting  to 
work.  Within  twenty-four  hours  we  may  be  suffering 
with  tonsilitis,  gasping  for  breath  with  diphtheria  or 
pneumonia,  or  nearly  wild  with  earache.  All  of  these 
germs  give  off  a  poison  which  enters  our  bodies  and 
makes  us  feel  sick  all  over. 


226        THE  PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

"  '  Mother  Nature  tries  to  get  rid  of  anything  in  our 
throats  by  having  us  cough.  Or  if  the  trouble  is  in 
the  nose,  the  air  is  driven  out  through  the  nose  and 
we  sneeze.  There  is  no  sneeze  unless  there  is  some- 
thing irritating  those  delicate  linings  of  the  nose.  If 
there  are  colonies  of  germs  growing  in  the  nose,  a 
sneeze  is  bound  to  carry  some  of  them  out.  Just  in 
the  same  way  is  the  air  coughed  out  laden  with  them. 
Not  every  cough  or  sneeze  carries  disease  germs  but 
probably  ninety-nine  out  of  every  hundred  do.' 

"  The  pupils  then  were  able  to  carry  on  the  lesson  by 
suggesting  how  to  care  for  the  sneeze  and  coughs. 
Some  of  the  commonest  statements  were,  '  Do  not 
sneeze.'  '  Turn  away  your  head  when  you  sneeze  or 
cough.'  '  Cover  your  nose  with  your  handkerchief 
when  you  must  sneeze.'  '  Have  a  clean  handkerchief 
every  day,  oftener  if  you  have  a  cold.'  '  Keep  your 
handkerchief  in  your  pocket  when  not  using  it.  Do 
not  wave  it  about.'  '  Be  careful  not  to  take  cold, 
then  the  germs  can't  grow.' 

"  The  grades  from  fourth  to  high  school  worked  out 
'Safety  First'  rules  during  their  language  period.  All 
endeavored  to  make  their  epigrams  real  danger  signals. 
Rhymes  were  used  effectively.  The  high  school  pupils 
wrote  on  the  most  effective  means  of  presenting  the 
dangers  of  promiscuous  sneezing  and  coughing  to 
the  general  public.  The  results  of  their  work  suggested 
many  unique  means  of  advertising.  Local  papers 
expressed  a  willingness  to  publish  some  of  the  best 
ones.  The  seventh  grade  have  lettering  in  their  draw- 


APPLICATION   OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD      227 

ing  work  and  they  made  some  of  the  epigrams  into 
effective  posters.  Other  grades  planned  '  Safety  First ' 
posters  to  be  placed  in  conspicuous  places  around  the 
school  building. 

"  The  following  were  chosen  from  the  fifth,  sixth, 
seventh,  and  eighth  grades  : 

"  '  Run  away  from  the  sneezers  if  you  want  to  keep 
well.' 

"  '  Dangerous  germs  are  scattered  by  a  cough  or  a 
sneeze.' 

"  '  Kershoo  !     A  thousand  grip  germs  fly  in  the  air.' 

"  '  Always  cover  your  nose  and  mouth  with  your 
handkerchief  before  sneezing.' 

"  '  If  you  are  a  Ger(m)man  go  a  Russian  to  the  doc- 
tor.' 

"  '  Are  you  prepared  ?  A  handkerchief  in  nick  of 
time 

Will  save  your  precious  health  and  mine.'  "  l 

PROJECTS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Beginning  Map  Study.  —  The  lesson  is  begun  by 
arousing  the  pupil's  interest  in,  and  demonstrating  a 
need  for,  the  subject  to  be  studied.  The  teacher  asks, 
"  Bobby,  does  little  Donald  who  lives  across  the  street 

EDITOR'S  NOTE. — As  Miss  Cresswell  shows  in  this  article,  even 
an  ill  may  be  turned  to  considerable  good.  As  is  evident  in  this 
account,  pupils  study  health  problems  —  as  other  problems  —  most 
vigorously  and  effectively  when  impelled  by  a  felt  need.  Under  such 
circumstances  pupils  readily  join  the  teacher  in  the  study  required  to 
satisfy  the  need ;  and  the  teacher  is  thereby  freed  from  the  all  too  com- 
mon "  bugbear"  of  making  the  work  interesting.  It  is  interesting 
because  it  is  what  it  is,  and  is  being  studied  when  it  is.  C.  W.  S. 


228        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

from  you  come  to  our  school?  "  Bobby  says,  "  No," 
and  the  teacher  immediately  asks,  "  Why  not  ?  "  Well, 
Bobby  probably  does  not  know,  so  you  ask,  "  Frank, 
does  James  who  lives  across  the  street  from  you  come  to 
our  school?  "  He  answers,  "  Yes,"  and  so  the  ques- 
tion immediately  comes,  "  Why  does  James  come  to  our 
school  and  not  Donald  ?  "  Some  one  will  probably 
answer,  "  Because  Donald  does  not  live  in  our  school 
district." 

The  teacher  then  asks  the  pupils  if  they  would  like 
to  know  something  about  the  size  and  shape  of  our 
school  district.  It  is  then  suggested  that  a  picture  of 
it  be  made  on  the  sand  table.  The  interest  is  now 
aroused  and  the  pupils  proceed  with  their  work.  Soon 
various  questions  arise,  such  as  :  Are  the  blocks  square  ? 
Are  all  the  blocks  exactly  the  same  size?  Where  is 
north,  south,  east,  and  west  ?  How  large  can  we  make 
the  blocks  to  have  room  for  all  the  blocks  on  our  sand 
table? 

Later  the  streets  are  named  and  each  child  locates 
his  own  home.  A  piece  of  chalk  or  wood  may  be 
used  to  represent  a  house.  All  important  buildings, 
such  as  stores  and  churches,  may  be  located  and  repre- 
sented in  any  way  the  children  may  choose.  This  is 
then  reproduced  as  a  map  on  the  blackboard ;  at  this 
point  the  problem  of  the  scale  is  taken  up. 

Teaching  Longitude  and  Time.  —  The  following  de- 
scription of  a  project  illustrates  how  well  seasonable 
topics  may  be  utilized. 


APPLICATION   OF  THE   PROJECT  METHOD      229 

In  November,  1918,  a  seventh  grade  class  began 
the  study  of  "  Longitude  and  Time,"  a  very  short 
time  after  the  armistice  had  been  signed.  The  local 
newspaper  contained  the  statement  that  the  armistice 
was  signed  the  llth  hour  of  the  llth  day  of  the  llth 
month.  //  this  statement  were  true,  at  what  time 
should  the  bells  proclaiming  the  signing  of  the  armis- 
tice have  rung  in  Urbana?  How  would  you  account 
for  the  fact  that  the  bells  rang  before  this  time  ? 

Pupils  were  so  anxious  to  recite  that  they  could 
hardly  stay  in  their  seats.  They  all  wanted  to  talk 
at  once ;  so  they  were  all  given  ten  minutes  to  write 
their  solutions  on  ,paper.  For  once,  they  wished  to 
write,  for  they  had  something  to  say. 

Then  one  girl  raised  her  hand  and  said,  "  I  have  a 
solution  of  this  problem,  and  I'd  like  to  challenge  the 
rest  of  the  class  to  find  any  flaw  in  my  arguments." 
Of  course  the  class  accepted  her  challenge ;  and  as  she 
stood  before  the  class  the  next  thirty  minutes  arguing 
with  her  schoolmates,  no  football  game  could  have 
been  more  exciting. 

What  Part  Has  Transportation  Played  in  the  Develop- 
ment of  Our  Country  ? 1 

The  aims  of  this  lesson  were : 

To  produce  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils  an  apprecia- 
tion of  the  value  of  transportation  in  the  development 

1  This  project  was  reported  by  Miss  Margaret  Long,  of  Rockford, 
Illinois. 


230        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

not  only  of  our  own  people  and  country  but  also  of 
other  nations. 

To  give  the  pupils  a  knowledge  of  the  meaning  of 
transportation  and  its  relation  to  all  the  great  indus- 
tries in  the  world. 

To  develop  judgment,  organization,  initiative ;  skill 
in  reproduction  and  representation. 

We  began  by  having  the  pupils  collect  material  for 
making  books  by  arranging  and  mounting  pictures, 
clippings,  and  drawings,  relating  the  work  as  far  as 
possible  to  the  subject  matter  in  geography  and 
history. 

A  shelf  was  placed  in  the  corner  of  the  room  for  a 
transportation  exhibit.  Some  of  the  simpler  vehicles 
of  transportation  were  made  by  the  pupils.  The  more 
complex  forms  were  represented  by  toys  and  mounted 
pictures.  The  arrangement  on  the  shelf  showed  the 
progress  from  the  primitive  to  the  more  complex  forms 
of  to-day.  The  following  outline  gives  the  content  of 
the  books  made  by  the  class  and  shows  the  order  of 
arrangement.  The  topics  were  discussed  in  class  after 
the  members  had  gained  information  on  each  from  read- 
ing and  research,  observation,  and  personal  experience. 

1.  An    introductory   page    on    the    importance   of 
transportation,  in  primitive  times ;   in  present  times ; 
in  the  speedy  movement  of  troops,  war  munitions,  and 
food. 

2.  List  of  the  different  modes  of  transportation  in 
Rockford,  Illinois. 


APPLICATION   OF  THE   PROJECT  METHOD      231 

3.  A  trip  taken  by  the  pupil  describing  modes  of 
travel  enjoyed. 

4.  A  brief  story  showing  the  relation  of  transportation 
to  the  three  great  needs  of  man  :  food,  shelter,  clothing. 

5.  A  study  of  the  following  outline  showing  how 
transportation  was  a  factor  in  the  development,  growth, 
and  civilization  of  nations,  especially  that  of  the  United 
States. 

I.   Kinds  of  transportation : 

1.  Early  Means: 

By  land :  on  foot,  in  carriages,  by  stage 
coaches,  on  trails ;  roads,  including  Roman 
roads.  By  water  :  canoes,  rowboats,  sailboats, 
flatboats ;  first  steamboat  on  Hudson  River, 
Mississippi  River,  Great  Lakes,  Atlantic  Ocean. 

2.  Modern  Means : 

By  land :  railroads,  comparing  early  roads 
with  trunk  lines  of  to-day ;  automobiles,  sug- 
gesting their  relation  to  the  demand  for  better 
roads,  and  the  effect  of  better  roads  on  the 
farmer ;  auto  trucks.  By  water :  canal 
boats,  suggesting  the  development  of  the  im- 
portant canals  such  as  the  Erie  and  Panama 
canals  ;  freighters  on  the  Great  Lakes ;  ocean 
liners,  comparing  these  with  early  steamships ; 
submarines  ;  battleships  ;  destroyers.  By  air  : 
aeroplanes,  describing  kinds  and  use ;  balloons. 

The  following  topics  relating  to  subject  matter  were 
used  as  far  as  possible  in  carrying  out  the  foregoing 
outline. 


232        THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

I.   Travel  in  Colonial  Days. 

1.  A  trip  from  Boston  to  Philadelphia. 

2.  Washington's  trip  to  Fort  Le  Boeuf. 

3.  Washington's  journey  from  his  home  in  Virginia  to 

New  York  City. 

4.  With  Daniel  Boone  in  the  wilderness. 
II.   Later  Times. 

1.  First  steamboat  ride  up  the  Hudson. 

2.  First  steamship  trip  across  the  Atlantic. 

3.  A  trip  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad  in  1835. 

4.  A  trip  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  to-day. 

5.  Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition. 

6.  A  journey  across  the  continent  to-day. 

7.  Early  Forty-niners. 

8.  A  trip  on  the  Great  Lakes  with  observations. 

9.  Experiences  on  a  transport  from  New  York  to  Brest. 

10.  What  part  has  the  aeroplane  played  in  present-day 

history  ? 

11.  What  part,  in  your  judgment,  will  the  aeroplane  play 

in  the  future  ? 

12.  Is  the  submarine  of  any  use  commercially  ? 

13.  Did  rapid  transportation  in  commerce  have  anything 

to  do  with  the  entry  of  the  United  States  in  the 
World  War? 

14.  Did  it  have  anything  to  do  with  our  winning  the  war  ? 

15.  Transatlantic  and  transcontinental  trips   of  aero- 

planes. 

The  pupils  have  enjoyed  the  work.  At  no  time  did 
interest  seem  to  lag.  I  feel  that  the  purpose  of  both 
teacher  and  pupil  has  in  the  majority  of  cases  been 
accomplished. 

Transportation  was  an  opportune  subject  at  this  time. 


APPLICATION   OF  THE   PROJECT  METHOD     233 

Magazines  and  newspapers  contained  valuable  articles 
both  as  to  past,  present,  and  future  modes  of  travel. 

This  project  may  be  used  to  correlate  the  work  in 
geography  and  history. 

Does  the  United  States  Produce  Enough  Sugar  to 
Supply  Her  Own  Needs  ? l 

Teacher's  Aim  :  To  have  the  pupil  realize  in  a  larger 
way  what  commercial  and  social  relations  of  people 
are  necessary  for  the  good  of  the  individual,  and  to 
have  him  see  how  man's  life  is  affected  by  geographic 
controls,  such  as  climate,  soil,  and  rainfall ;  also  to  help 
the  pupil  to  become  more  independent  in  his  thinking, 
to  have  more  initiative,  and  specifically  to  lead  him  to 
develop  an  interest  in  the  production  of  the  common 
necessities  of  life. 

Pupils'  Aim :  (1)  To  find  out  whether  the  United 
States  produces  enough  sugar  for  its  own  needs ;  (2)  to 
make  the  sugar  booklets  and  sugar  exhibit. 

Method  of  Procedure :  The  sugar  project  was  intro- 
duced by  an  informal  talk  on  sweets  relative  to  their 
popularity  and  the  extent  to  which  they  are  used, 
during  which  arose  the  question,  "  Does  the  United 
States  produce  enough  sugar  to  supply  her  own  needs  ?  " 
This  question,  coming  at  the  close  of  our  talk  in  which 
we  also  discussed  the  scarcity  of  sugar  during  the  war, 
was  of  great  interest  to  the  pupils  and  became  the 

1  A  project  developed  by  Clara  E.  Kanger,  teacher  of  the  fifth  grade, 
Kent  School,  Rockford,  Illinois. 


234         THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

basis  for  research  work  leading  to  a  desire  to  know 
where  sugar  cane  grows  and  how  much  of  the  United 
States  is  available  for  producing  this  plant. 

They  found  that  Louisiana  is  the  chief  sugar  produc- 
ing state,  and  the  question  naturally  arose,  "  Why 
does  Louisiana  produce  most  sugar  cane?"  Thus, 
with  the  teacher's  aid  and  the  use  of  maps  and  reference 
books,  the  pupils  worked  out  the  fact  that  Louisiana 
has  been  especially  benefited  by  the  Mississippi  River 
as  to  soil ;  that  this  river  has  actually  taken  rich  soil 
of  other  states  and  carried  it  down  to  Louisiana, 
and  that  this  advantage,  together  with  the  warm 
climate  and  abundant  rainfall,  makes  this  state  es- 
pecially fitted  for  the  successful  growing  of  sugar 
cane. 

In  the  course  of  this  work,  the  pupils  learned  to  use 
the  indexes  of  their  own  geographies,  and  to  avail 
themselves  of  many  sources  of  information  other  than 
the  textbook.  In  developing  the  fact  that  the 
Mississippi  River  is  responsible  for  Louisiana's  rich 
soil,  they  learned  incidentally  how  rivers  and  valleys 
are  formed  and  how  running  water  is  forever  tearing 
down  and  leveling  the  land,  leaving  the  poorer  soil  on 
the  hills  and  the  rich  soil  in  the  valleys.  The  next 
step,  viz.,  finding  out  how  sugar  cane  is  raised,  natur- 
ally grew  out  of  this  discussion,  which  closed  with  the 
process  of  manufacture  and  the  location  of  the  refin- 
eries. At  this  point,  the  question  came  up,  "  Why  are 
so  many  sugar  refineries  located  in  the  New  England 


APPLICATION   OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD      235 

States  ?  "  This  called  for  consideration  of  the  South- 
ern life  of  past  years,  and,  especially,  of  the  topic 
of  slavery. 

But  we  had  not  yet  settled  the  question  of  the  United 
States'  ability  to  supply  her  own  needs.  Every 
day,  new  and  interesting  facts  were  brought  up  by 
various  pupils ;  some  soon  discovered  that  a  large 
amount  of  our  sugar  is  made  from  beets,  others  dis- 
covered that  there  are  other  kinds  of  sugar,  such  as 
maple  and  grape.  We  were  especially  fortunate  in 
having  in  our  class  a  boy  who  had  lived  in  Louisiana, 
and,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  class  ascertained  that 
we  produce  both  beet  and  cane  sugar  in  large  quanti- 
ties, he  asserted  that  he  saw  shiploads  of  raw  sugar 
from  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  come  into  New  Orleans 
very  frequently.  This  naturally  led  to  an  interest 
in  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico.  These  islands  were  located 
on  the  map,  and  their  history  discussed,  thus  leading 
to  the  story  of  Columbus  and  ending  with  the  Spanish 
American  War.  Through  the  story  of  the  latter  event, 
the  Philippine  Islands  became  a  subject  of  interest, 
and  the  fact  was  discovered  that  these  islands,  too, 
produce  much  sugar.  In  connection  with  this  work 
our  interests,  of  course,  included  the  habits  and  cus- 
toms of  people  inhabiting  these  islands.  Through  this 
work  in  connection  with  the  Philippine  Islands  we 
learned  at  least  one  reason  for  the  location  of  sugar 
refineries  at  San  Francisco.  Finally,  one  boy  found  a 
reference  that  stated  conclusively  how  much  of  our 


236        THE   PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

sugar  we  are  able  to  produce  ourselves  and  how  much 
is  imported.  By  means  of  a  sugar-cane  map  the  pupils 
found  that  other  countries  with  climate  and  soil  similar 
to  those  of  Louisiana  also  produce  sugar  cane.  In  this 
connection  we  found  out  that  cane  sugar  originated  in 
India. 

At  the  very  beginning  of  our  work,  the  pupils  found 
interesting  pictures,  some  of  which  they  cut  from 
discarded  books  and  magazines  and  eagerly  showed 
to  the  class.  By  the  way,  pictures  furnished  a 
constant  and  most  interesting  source  of  information 
for  our  work  —  hence,  we  decided  to  make  a  sugar- 
booklet,  using  our  English  periods  for  writing  up 
interesting  things  that  had  been  discussed  in  the  pre- 
ceding geography  class.  We  also  decided  to  write  to  va- 
rious companies  listed  under  "  Material  on  Geography," 
in  the  Normal  School  Bulletin,  published  by  the 
Eastern  Illinois  State  Normal  School  at  Charleston. 
These  companies  supply  literature  and  exhibits  on 
geographical  topics  either  free  or  at  very  small  cost. 
Hence,  each  one  chose  a  company  to  write  to,  and  then, 
of  course,  we  found  it  necessary  to  develop  the  writing 
of  a  good  business  letter.  When,  in  due  time,  the  re- 
plies came  in  the  form  of  attractive  booklets  containing 
interesting  pictures  and  literature  often  accompanied 
by  a  real  business  letter  from  the  company  itself,  the 
pupils'  faces  invariably  beamed  with  pleasure,  and  each 
one,  without  exception,  asked  permission  to  take  his 
reply  home  to  show  to  his  parents. 


APPLICATION   OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD      237 

To  make  our  booklets  complete,  we  decided  to  in- 
clude items  concerning  other  kinds  of  sugar,  also.  We 
studied  the  subject  of  beet  sugar  in  detail ;  the  climate 
and  soil  best  suited  to  the  growth  of  sugar  beets ;  the 
history  of  sugar  beet  culture,  which  took  us  to  France 
and  touched  upon  European  life  and  the  recent  war ; 
the  method  of  raising  beets  and  the  process  of  making 
sugar  from  them.  Comparisons  were  made  throughout 
with  sugar  cane. 

We  took  up  maple  sugar  in  a  similar  manner.  The 
pupils  were  surprised  to  learn  that  the  Indians  were 
the  discoverers  of  this  kind  of  sugar.  This  information 
was  gained  from  the  free  literature  which  they  had 
received  in  reply  to  their  letters.  During  the  English 
period,  the  children  not  only  wrote  accounts  of  interest- 
ing things  discussed  during  the  geography  period,  but 
mounted  pictures  relating  to  the  subject,  and  even 
made  drawings  if  no  other  illustrations  were  available. 
They  also  made  maps  showing  where  the  various  kinds 
of  sugar  were  produced.  Their  books  also  contained 
something  about  honey,  which  they  found  was  the  first 
sweet  substance  known.  Interesting  articles  cut  from 
magazines,  including  those  on  ways  and  means  of  saving 
sugar,  were  mounted  and  added  to  their  collections  of 
material  for  their  booklets.  We  also  discussed  and 
wrote  an  account  of  the  causes  of  our  sugar  shortage 
during  the  war.  Finally,  we  worked  out  an  outline 
showing  the  order  in  which  the  stories  of  sugar  ought 
to  be  bound,  an  index  was  made,  and  the  pages  of  the 


238        THE  PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

booklets  placed  within  covers  which  had  been  designed 
and  made  during  drawing  periods.  We  concluded  our 
work  by  making  a  sugar  exhibit  consisting  of  several 
small  bottles  filled  each  with  a  different  kind  of  sugar 
and  mounted  on  a  piece  of  cardboard  with  a  note  of 
explanation  under  each.  The  contents  of  the  bottles, 
with  one  or  two  exceptions,  were  provided  by  pupils 
of  the  class,  and  they  selected  a  committee  of  two  to 
attend  to  the  work  of  mounting  the  bottles. 

During  the  entire  period  of  time  spent  on  the  sub- 
ject of  sugar  the  children  showed  a  high  degree  of 
interest.  Especially  was  this  evident  during  the  class 
periods ;  for  at  this  time  problems  arose  and  were 
solved,  and  free,  courteous  discussion  was  allowed  among 
the  children  on  all  questions  that  arose  relative  to  the 
subject.  The  pupils  were  allowed  to  use  their  refer- 
ence books  at  any  time  during  the  recitation  periods,  if 
necessary,  in  order  to  answer  a  question  or  solve  some 
problem  that  came  up  in  the  course  of  their  discussion. 
Arithmetical  problems  in  connection  with  the  s\ib- 
ject  appeared  from  time  to  time,  and  thus  arithmetic 
was  correlated  with  geography.  Their  books,  though 
crude  and  unfinished  in  some  respects,  are,  neverthe- 
less, treasured  possessions,  while  the  exhibit  was  used 
to  advantage  in  another  grade. 

The  study  of  the  sugar  industry  may  be  introduced 
in  many  other  ways,  such  as  through  a  candy  sale  for 
the  purpose  of  raising  money  for  a  room  or  for  the  entire 
school.  Also,  added  interest  in  the  subject  may  be 


APPLICATION   OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD      239 

secured  by  actually  collecting  maple  sap  and  boiling  it 
until  it  becomes  sugar.  The  making  of  a  book  of 
choice  cake,  pudding,  and  candy  recipes  might  be 
another  way  of  approach,  and,  in  this  way,  the  interest 
of  the  children  might  be  aroused  in  making  wholesome 
candies  instead  of  buying  the  cheap  varieties  of  ques- 
tionable quality.  The  planting  of  sorghum  or  sugar 
beets  in  the  home  or  school  gardens  might  also  prove 
interesting.  The  important  thing,  of  course,  is  that 
the  child  shall  have  a  real  purpose  to  carry  out,  —  a 
purpose  which  is  really  his  and  not  merely  the  echo  of 
some  other  person's  idea. 

The  author  considers  this  project  interesting  because 
situations  were  developed  in  carrying  this  unit  of  work 
to  completion  which  involved  geography,  arithmetic, 
history,  writing,  art,  and  hand  work. 

PROJECTS  IN  HISTOEY 

Why  the  United  States  Declared  War  on  Germany. 
—  A  class  in  current  events  was  discussing  the  war  as 
a  contest  between  autocracy  and  democracy.  Grant- 
ing the  oppressiveness  and  brutality  of  the  German 
autocracy,  one  boy  would  not  see  that  the  United  States 
was  justified  in  going  to  war  to  oppose  it.  The  boy 
was  obviously  ignorant  of  many  of  the  other  reasons 
for  our  entry  into  the  war.  He  had  been  on  his  father's 
ranch  since  the  declaration  of  war,  and  had  not  read 
the  newspapers.  He  had  no  German  connections,  or 
sympathies. 


240        THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OP  TEACHING 

His  project  was  the  task  of  finding  out  just  why  we 
declared  war  on  Germany.  His  instructions  merely 
said  that  he  should  consult  three  sources  of  informa- 
tion, each  a  different  kind  of  source. 

His  report  to  the  class  a  week  later  was  illuminating 
to  others  besides  himself.  An  uncle  had  given  him  the 
purely  moral  grounds  for  our  entry  —  the  assault  on 
Belgium,  the  outrages  in  northern  France,  the  barbarity 
of  the  aerial  warfare,  and  the  inhumanity  of  the  sub- 
marine campaign. 

A  bulletin  of  the  Committee  on  Public  Information 
had  furnished  him  with  a  review  of  the  evidence  that 
Germany  started  the  war  for  imperialistic  reasons,  and 
this  fact,  together  with  the  character  of  the  German 
warfare,  had  convinced  him  that  the  ultimate  safety 
of  the  United  States  demanded  Germany's  defeat. 
Several  newspaper  writers  had  expressed  the  opinion 
that  the  collapse  of  Russia  insured  a  German  victory 
unless  our  aid  should  become  quickly  effective. 

These  considerations  appealed  to  him  strongly,  but 
he  was  even  more  surprised  by  the  record  of  sub- 
marine sinkings  involving  the  death  of  Americans.  A 
copy  of  the  Review  of  Reviews  had  published  a  com- 
plete list  of  all  the  vessels  so  sunk,  together  with 
the  diplomatic  action  taken  by  the  United  States  in 
each  case. 

These  grounds  he  regarded  as  more  than  sufficient 
reason  for  our  entering  the  war  without  considering  it 
as  a  struggle  between  autocracy  and  democracy. 


APPLICATION  OP  THE   PROJECT  METHOD      241 

What  Progress  Has  Been  Made  in  the  World  War 
over  the  Civil  War?1  —  After  the  preliminary  discus- 
sion which  led  to  the  choice  of  this  problem  for  study, 
several  lessons  were  given  to  a  consideration  of  how 
the  material  could  best  be  organized  for  compari- 
son. A  list  of  topics  was  prepared  which  formed 
the  basis  for  study  and  for  the  assignments  to 
the  members  of  the  class.  Following  is  the  list  of 
topics : 

I.  Preparations. 

II.  Drafting  of  armies. 

III.  Equipment;  guns;  supplies. 

IV.  Financing. 

V.  Camps  and  training. 

VI.  Transportation  of  troops. 

VII.  Navy. 

VIII.  Battlefields;  trenches;  maps. 

IX.  Red  Cross ;  Sanitary  Commission. 

X.  Directing  of  battle  lines. 

XI.  Generals ;  comparison  of  commanders. 

XII.  Battles  —  land,  sea;   blockades. 

XIII.  Morale. 

XIV.  Destruction  —  land,  property,  troops. 

XV.     Objectives  taken ;  forts ;  effect  upon  countries. 
XVI.     Surrender. 

XVII.     Demobilizing  —  at  home ;  abroad. 
XVIII.     Peace  Treaty. 

XIX.  Songs  —  patriotic,  1860 ;  cheers,  1918 ;  bands, 
1918 ;  drum  corps,  1860 ;  poems,  1860 ;  poems, 
1918. 

1  A  project  reported  by  Mrs.  Haupt,  teacher  of  the  eighth  grade, 
Kishwaukee  School,  Rockford,  Illinois. 


242        THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

The  next  step  was  to  help  each  one  to  work  up  his 
topic  by  making  use  of  the  public  library.  The 
teacher  spent  some  time  at  the  library  finding  sources 
of  information  relating  to  the  Civil  War.  The  class 
then  went  to  the  library  to  begin  the  reading. 

The  librarian  was  furnished  with  the  name  of  each 
child  and  his  topic.  She  had  looked  up  references  and 
placed  the  material  in  a  convenient  place  for  the  pupils. 
After  working  for  one  and  a  half  hours,  books  were 
selected  that  could  be  taken  home  for  more  work. 
While  this  was  not  an  ideal  method  because  it  left 
little  initiative  to  the  children,  it  seemed  expedient 
and  enabled  the  class  to  carry  through  a  profitable  study 
which  could  not  have  been  accomplished  otherwise. 
The  class  later  had  instruction  in  using  the  card  cata- 
logue and  in  looking  up  references. 

The  next  class  period  was  spent  in  discussing  the 
benefit  of  the  afternoon's  study.  Difficulties  were 
discussed  and  methods  of  overcoming  them  were  pro- 
posed. At  this  point  the  pupils  wished  to  begin  to 
discuss  their  topics.  It  seemed  wise  for  each  to 
make  an  outline  of  his  subject  before  presenting  it. 

Topics  were  presented  in  the  class  in  the  order  of 
the  general  outline.  A  general  discussion  followed  each 
talk  and  opportunity  was  given  for  the  asking  of  ques- 
tions, for  the  giving  of  information,  and  for  the  challeng- 
ing of  any  point.  After  the  discussion  of  the  topic 
"  Financing  the  War,"  a  number  of  problems  in  arith- 
metic arose  and  were  solved.  The  location  of  camps, 


APPLICATION  OF  THE   PROJECT  METHOD      243 

forts,  and  cantonments  gave  practice  in  geography. 
It  was  interesting  to  note  how  many  took  their  names 
from  Civil  War  leaders. 

Besides  the  knowledge  gained  about  both  wars,  the 
following  good  results  were  noticeable :  undiminished 
interest  throughout  the  work ;  unfailing  enthusiasm ; 
advance  in  ability  to  prepare  work  independently ; 
more  knowledge  of  using  the  library;  gain  in  power 
to  present  a  topic  orally  before  the  class. 

PROJECTS  IN  MANUAL  TRAINING 

A  Large  Project  in  Manual  Training.  —  The  large 
project  herein  described  was  carried  out  in  the  public 
schools  of  Clifton,  Illinois,  during  the  year  1911-1912, 
under  the  direction  of  Principal  Charles  Trimble,  and 
duplicated  in  part  in  the  Ashkum,  Illinois,  schools 
during  the  year  1912-1913.  The  description  of  the 
project  is  practically  a  description  of  the  whole  plan 
of  manual  training  in  the  Clifton  schools. 

There  was  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  school  board, 
parents,  and  pupils  of  the  school  for  a  course  in  manual 
training.  This  same  desire  may  be  found  in  the  average 
small  school  system.  There  was  no  definite  purpose 
on  the  part  of  the  people,  except  that  other  schools 
had  such  courses,  therefore,  in  all  probability,  Clifton 
should  have  one.  The  school  course  was  the  traditional 
eight-year  course  with  three  years  of  high  school  work. 
The  principal  organized  the  course  of  study  and  super- 
vised its  administration.  The  school  board,  while  sym- 


244        THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

pathizing  with  the  plan  of  introducing  manual  training, 
did  not  feel  that  they  should  spend  the  money  neces- 
sary to  install  elaborate  equipment.  They  agreed, 
therefore,  to  furnish  the  material  needed  for  remodel- 
ing and  making  the  work  benches  if  the  boys  would  do 
the  rest.  The  principal  was  a  practical  man,  a  car- 
penter and  builder,  and  worked  at  his  trade  during 
the  summer  months  as  well  as  at  odd  times  during 
the  school  year. 

In  the  beginning,  Mr.  Trimble  determined  upon 
certain  aims.  These  he  found  in  the  lives  and  activities 
of  the  children.  By  conversation  with  the  boys  he 
discovered  what  they  wanted  to  make  and  what  use 
they  intended  to  make  of  the  products.  Among  these 
were  a  window  seat,  a  study  table,  and  a  playhouse 
for  the  children.  Each  boy  had  some  definite  thing 
in  mind  which  he  wished  to  make.  The  boys  or  their 
parents  assumed  the  responsibility  of  getting  the 
tools  and  materials  necessary. 

The  school  building  was  of  the  regulation  grade-school 
type.  In  the  basement,  however,  was  a  storeroom  in 
which  a  considerable  amount  of  useless  material  had 
accumulated.  This  room  the  boys  decided  to  make 
their  shop.  It  was  unfinished  in  that  it  lacked  a  floor 
and  adequate  light.  The  floor,  they  decided,  should 
be  cement  (Mr.  Trimble  admitted  afterwards  that  this 
was  a  mistake)  and  the  windows  had  to  be  cut  out  so 
that  full-sized  frames  could  be  installed.  "  At  first," 
Mr.  Trimble  said,  "  the  boys  worked  for  me  like 


APPLICATION   OF  THE   PROJECT   METHOD      245 

apprentices."  In  the  matter  of  constructing  the  floor, 
however,  some  investigation  was  necessary.  They 
looked  up  all  the  information  that  they  could  find 
about  cement  in  the  school  library,  but  this  proved 
inadequate.  They  therefore  went  to  the  trade  journals 
and  the  literature  of  the  cement  companies,  with  the 
result  that  they  learned  the  story  of  cement  from  the 
time  it  is  mined  to  the  time  it  is  in  use  in  the  walk 
or  floor.  They  learned  especially  the  kinds  of  founda- 
tions used,  the  proportions  used  in  mixing,  the  methods 
of  mixing,  the  means  of  applying,  and  the  precautions 
to  be  taken.  "  It  was  very  important,"  said  Mr. 
Trimble,  "  that  no  mistakes  be  made.  A  bad  job  not 
only  detracts  from  the  interest  in  the  work  but  is  a 
continual  nuisance."  When  all  was  carefully  planned 
the  boys  bought  the  cement,  conveyed  it  to  the  school- 
house,  and  did  the  job.  As  a  direct  result  of  this 
achievement  one  of  the  boys  bought  material,  mixed 
it,  and  laid  a  walk  at  home. 

The  next  problem  was  the  benches,  saw-horses,  and 
miter  boxes.  For  these  the  school  board  furnished  the 
lumber,  but  all  the  work  was  done  by  the  boys. 

u  In  most  of  the  school  workshops,"  said  Mr. 
Trimble,  "  there  is  a  bench  for  every  boy.  These  are 
equipped  with  lock  vises,  patented  stops,  and  plugs. 
We  did  not  see  that  this  was  necessary,  for,  when  one 
boy  was  working  at  the  bench,  others  could  work  at 
the  '  horses.'  Besides  no  practical  carpenter  uses  that 
sort  of  thing." 


246        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

Accordingly,  one  large  bench,  which  extended  nearly 
the  whole  length  of  the  room,  and  two  smaller  benches 
were  made.  These  were  equipped  with  vises  which  the 
boys  made  and  which  operated  by  means  of  the  old- 
style  bench  screw.  The  work  was  carefully  planned 
under  the  supervision  of  the  teacher  so  that  the  material 
could  be  sawed  and  shaped  to  fit  before  assembling. 
There  was  very  little  waste  in  material.  In  the  same 
way,  tool  boxes  were  made  to  fit  the  tools  that  the  boys 
had  or  might  expect  to  use.  The  boys  bought  their 
tools  or  carried  them  from  home.  A  very  few  special 
tools  were  supplied  by  the  school  board. 

All  the  work  that  has  been  done  in  this  shop  has  been 
done  by  the  project  method.  Mr.  Trimble  first  makes 
sure  that  the  boy  knows  what  he  wants  to  make  and 
that  he  has  some  use  for  it.  The  boy  must  then  sub- 
mit a  working  drawing  that  is  "  readable  "  and  the 
dimensions  must  "prove  out."  Very  little  limitation 
is  placed  on  the  projects  attempted  except  that  the 
product  must  be  useful.  The  boys  are  allowed  to 
make  those  things  which  they  or  their  parents  would 
be  likely  to  buy.  A  few  projects  have  been  worked 
out  as  drill  exercises. 

When  a  boy  is  "  graduated  "  from  this  course  he  takes 
his  tool  box  and  tools  home  with  him  for  his  future 
home  projects. 

Manual  training  is  not  required  of  any  of  the  pupils, 
but  most  of  the  boys  and  some  girls  take  it.  The  girls 
have  a  similar  course  in  sewing  given  by  a  teacher 


APPLICATION   OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD      247 

who,  during  the  summer  months,  is  a  seamstress,  dress- 
maker, and  milliner. 

Making  and  Furnishing  a  Dolls'  House.1  —  When  a 
child  begins  school  he  is  not  severing  home  ties,  but  he 
is  taking  his  first  step  in  the  outside  world.  Home, 
and  all  that  it  means,  is  still  his  main  thought,  so,  in 
choosing  a  dolls'  house  as  a  project  for  a  class  of 
beginners,  I  took  something  that  I  was  sure  would 
interest  all,  and  at  the  same  time  bridge  the  gap  be- 
tween home  and  school.  I  could  add  to  the  informa- 
tion of  the  children  by  discussing  with  them  during 
the  process  of  building  the  source  and  use  of  the 
materials  which  we  handled,  and  the  need  and  mean- 
ing of  these  things  in  our  daily  life,  thus  opening  the 
subject  of  the  relation  between  home  and  community 
life. 

Through  our  talks  leading  up  to  the  adoption  of  the 
project,  the  children's  aim  came  to  be  the  building  and 
furnishing  of  a  home  for  their  dolls  to  live  in. 

"  What  do  you  like  to  play  with  at  home  after 
school,  children?  "  The  answers  to  this  question  were 
many  and  various.  Some  of  the  boys  liked  to  play 
with  their  sleds  (for  it  was  winter  then),  others,  to  roll 
small  snowballs  into  larger  ones.  One  little  girl  said 
she  liked  to  play  house  with  her  doll  and  her  dishes. 
It  was  then  that  I  learned  the  history  of  every  doll 
family  which  my  little  group  of  girls  possessed.  I  asked 

1  A  project  reported  by  Elsie  M.  Ford,  a  teacher  of  the  first  grade, 
Kent  School,  Rockford,  Illinois. 


248        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OP  TEACHING 

if  their  doll  families  had  real  dolls'  houses  to  live  in.  No, 
they  didn't  seem  to  have  any,  so  I  asked,  "  How 
would  the  little  boys  and  girls  like  to  make  a  real  house 
for  the  dolls  to  live  in?  "  Questions  such  as,  "  Can 
we  sit  in  it  when  it  is  done?  "  and,  "  Will  it  have  a  real 
roof  and  windows?  "  arose,  and  every  one  seemed 
eager  to  begin  right  away. 

''  What  do  you  suppose  we  could  make  our  dolls'  house 
out  of?  What  material  is  used  in  making  houses?" 
Through  previous  talks  on  the  source  and  use  of  lum- 
ber, the  children  were  able  to  answer  "  lumber,"  and  so 
it  was  decided  to  have  a  frame  house.  A  large  box 
found  in  the  school  building  furnished  the  body,  but, 
as  one  pupil  said,  "  It  doesn't  look  like  a  house ;  there 
isn't  a  roof  nor  any  windows."  '  Would  you  like  to 
put  a  real  shingle  roof  on  it  ?  "  Oh,  yes,  they  thought 
they  would. 

Roof  boards  cut  in  the  right  proportion  were  secured, 
and,  after  placing  the  box  close  to  a  table  so  that  little 
hands  could  easily  reach,  with  a  little  aid  the  roof 
rafters  and  roof  boards  were  nailed  on.  The  children 
were  then  shown  how  to  lay  shingles  and  no  house  has 
been  shingled  with  greater  joy  in  the  work  than  our  dolls' 
house.  While  shingling  we  talked  about  the  carpen- 
ter, the  origin  of  shingles  and  shingle  nails,  and  all 
that  had  to  be  done  before  the  shingle  and  shingle 
nails  were  ready  for  use.  After  the  house  was  shingled, 
the  ridge  board  was  nailed  into  place  and  painted,  and 
the  gable  painted. 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  PROJECT  METHOD     249 

"  Is  there  anything  else  to  do  to  this  house  before 
we  move  in?  "  "  Oh,  Miss  Ford,  the  windows  aren't 
in  yet !  "  A  gimlet  was  secured  and  many  small  hands 
took  great  delight  in  turning  it,  and  gleaming  eyes 
watched  the  auger  as  it  went  through  the  wood.  The 
pastime,  then,  was  counting  the  holes.  Each  window 
had  four  holes  and,  if  any  child  made  a  mistake  in 
counting,  it  was  quickly  noticed  and  corrected  by 
others.  Running  the  keyhole  saw  was  too  difficult  a 
process  for  the  little  people,  but  shouts  of  real  joy 
greeted  each  piece  of  wood  as  it  fell  and  the  window 
came  into  view.  The  pieces  of  wood  cut  out  were 
counted,  the  windows  were  counted,  the  girls  and  boys 
working  were  counted. 

"  Now,  let  us  move  in,  children."  "  We  haven't 
any  chairs  or  tables."  "  Can't  we  make  some  ? "  "What 
shall  we  make  them  out  of  so  that  they  will  be 
like  real  chairs  ?  "  "  Wood  !  Lumber !  "  Lumber  it 
shall  be.  Thanks  to  the  foresight  of  our  primary 
supervisor  we  had  the  lumber  on  hand,  also  hammers 
and  nails.  A  few  lessons  were  given  in  fitting  different 
pieces  together  to  see  what  could  be  made  (the  parts 
for  the  different  pieces  of  furniture  having  been  selected 
and  placed  in  piles).  Every  one  made  something  and, 
as  each  piece  was  made,  its  name  and  use  were  talked 
about.  I  asked  the  children  if  the  furniture  in  their 
homes  was  the  color  of  that  which  we  had  made.  No 
one  seemed  to  think  so.  "  Why  isn't  it  ?  "  I  asked. 
Through  previous  talks  on  painting  houses  and  wood 


250        THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

to  preserve  and  beautify,  they  knew  that  it  was  be- 
cause the  furniture  needed  to  be  painted.  Right  here, 
the  director  of  all  this  fun  purchased  a  can  of  stain  for 
its  quickly  drying  and  non-sticking  qualities,  and 
interest  surely  ran  high  while  the  staining  was  in 
process.  Every  one  painted  something.-  One  little 
boy  wanted  to  know  if  he  couldn't  make  and  stain  a 
"  grandfather's  clock."  The  pieces  suitable  for  it 
were  given  him  and  a  clock  was  the  result.  A  little 
girl  cut  a  white  circle  and  an  orange  pendulum  and 
we  had  a  good-looking  clock. 

"  Children,  do  the  houses  you  live  in  stand  right  on 
the  ground?  "  No  one  seemed  to  have  a  clear  idea,  so 
a  walk  was  indulged  in,  and  we  came  back  with  the 
idea  that  our  house  ought  to  have  a  foundation.  We 
found  that  the  janitor  could  furnish  us  with  enough 
brick  for  the  purpose,  so  several  boys  brought  them  to 
the  scene  of  action  and  our  house  soon  rested  on  a 
brick  foundation.  Our  house  now  had  a  roof  to  keep 
the  rain  from  coming  in,  and  a  foundation  to  keep  the 
floor  dry  and  warm. 

In  the  meantime,  real  cloth  rugs  had  been  in  the 
process  of  construction  on  little  looms,  and  by  the  time 
the  furniture  was  ready  for  the  house,  enough  rugs  were 
ready  also.  A  pink  rug  with  gray  border  was  chosen 
for  the  bedroom,  and  the  bed,  dresser,  chair,  and 
clothes  rack  were  placed  by  eager  hands.  A  blue  rug 
with  a  white  border  was  decided  on  for  the  sitting 
room,  and  the  bookcase,  davenport,  library  table, 


APPLICATION   OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD      251 

and  chairs  were  arranged  by  the  children.  A  dark 
blue  rug  with  a  white  border  was  placed  on  the  dining- 
room  floor  and  the  round  dining-room  table  was  carried 
into  the  house,  four  dining  chairs  placed  around  it,  and 
the  buffet  placed  close  by.  Our  kitchen  furniture 
consisted  of  a  cupboard,  kitchen  table,  and  chair ;  and 
these  were  soon  in  place.  Brass  tacks  furnished  the 
handles  for  the  cupboard,  sideboard,  and  dresser,  and 
the  two  latter  were  decorated  with  real  mirrors. 

"  Children,  what  is  the  matter  with  our  windows  ?  " 
Answers  quickly  came,  "  There  is  no  glass,"  and  "  No 
shades  to  pull  down,"  and  "  No  white  curtains ! " 
Interest  ran  high  again  at  the  prospect  of  getting  the 
windows  to  look  like  those  at  home.  What  color 
should  the  shades  be?  Many  colors  were  suggested 
but  green  was  decided  upon,  and  oblongs  of  green 
paper  were  cut  and  held  in  place  at  the  windows  by 
push  tacks. 

One  day,  later  on,  found  the  little  girls  grouped 
around  the  dolls'  house,  weaving  needles  and  thread 
across  the  tops  of  pieces  of  white  cloth.  Having  had 
previous  experience  in  weaving,  this  was  a  light  task 
and  the  curtains  for  our  windows  were  soon  finished. 

We  talked  about  the  cotton  seed  that  helped  make 
the  cloth  used  in  our  curtains. 

Pictures,  brought  by  the  children,  were  placed  on 
the  walls  of  our  house  by  them,  and  our  dream  of 
having  a  dolls'  house  had  finally  come  true. 


252         THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

PROJECTS  IN  MATHEMATICS 

What  Problems  Are  Involved  in  the  Widening  of 
Church  Street  f 1 

Teacher's  Aim :  To  give  a  thorough  review  of  arith- 
metic. To  interest  the  children  and,  through  the  chil- 
dren, the  parents  in  the  Rockford  Plan. 

We  began  this  work  by  reading  and  discussing 
articles  from  the  Rockford  Plan  Book.  We  read  very 
thoroughly  the  suggestions  on  widening  Church  Street 
and  talked  about  the  reasons  for  the  extension  of  the 
business  district  to  this  street.  I  told  the  class  about 
the  necessary  change  from  seventeen  feet  on  each  side 
of  the  street,  as  first  planned,  to  sixteen  feet  on  each 
side.  The  class  located  the  Cook  Building  which  was 
involved. 

We  read  the  names  of  the  special  committee  ap- 
pointed by  the  Rockford  Chamber  of  Commerce  for 
investigating  a  city  plan.  I  asked  the  class  to  talk 
with  any  member  of  the  committee  and  report  to  class 
all  the  information  they  received.  A  committee  of 
three  called  on  Mr.  George  D.  Roper  and  received 
much  valuable  information. 

With  this  information  added  to  what  we  gained 
through  reading  the  Rockford  Plan  we  began  to  work 
out  our  problems.  We  drew  a  line  sixteen  feet  long 
on  the  board  and  the  class  learned  to  estimate  a  distance 

1  A  project  reported  by  Alice  Nolan,  teacher  of  the  eighth  grade, 
Blake  School,  Rockford,  Illinois. 


APPLICATION   OF  THE   PROJECT  METHOD     253 

of  sixteen  feet.  Then  the  class  made  a  careful  study  of 
Church  Street.  They  found  that  it  would  be  neces- 
sary to  reconstruct  fifty-two  buildings  on  Church 
Street  between  Cedar  Street  and  Peach  Street  in  order 
to  widen  the  street  sixteen  feet  on  each  side.  We 
found  one  building  that  would  be  only  six  feet  wide 
after  the  necessary  change  and,  after  some  discussion, 
decided  the  city  would  have  to  buy  this  property. 

Mr.  Roper  told  the  committee  two  ways  were  being 
considered  for  raising  the  money  needed  for  widening 
Church  Street.  One  way  for  raising  the  money  was 
by  taxes,  the  other  by  bonding  the  city. 

We  studied  the  first  way  suggested,  by  taxes.  The 
following  questions  were  given  to  the  class : 

1.  What  are  taxes? 

2.  What  do  you  mean  by  assessed  valuation? 

3.  What  was  the  1918  rate  of  taxation  for  the  city 
of  Rockford? 

After  answering  the  above  questions,  the  children 
brought  the  amounts  of  personal  and  real  estate  taxes 
paid  by  their  parents  to  class  and  we  made  those  the 
basis  of  our  problems.  The  Winnebago  County  road 
tax  was  very  much  discussed  in  the  local  papers  at 
this  time  and  furnished  material  for  many  problems. 
The  income  tax  collectors  were  in  our  city  at  this  time 
but  I  found  that  very  few  of  the  pupils  heard  this 
subject  discussed  at  home  and  only  two  pupils  knew 
their  parents  paid  an  income  tax.  We  made  a  thorough 


254        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

study  of  the  income  tax,  hoping  all  the  pupils  would 
have  future  use  for  it  —  a  tendency  to  social  service. 
Following  this,  we  took  the  principal  problems  on  taxes 
given  in  our  textbook. 

After  completing  the  work  on  taxes,  we  studied  the 
second  method  suggested,  —  bonding  the  city.  We 
spent  a  short  time  on  government  bonds,  —  the  Liberty 
Loan  and  the  Victory  Loan  with  which  the  class  were 
familiar.  We  followed  this  with  a  study  of  city  bonds, 
then  discussed  bonding  the  city  for  the  improving  of 
Church  Street.  We  found  this  to  be  an  impossibility 
as  it  would  have  to  be  voted  on  at  a  regular  election 
or  a  special  election  and  as  our  city  can  only  be 
bonded  for  $400,000  it  would  not  cover  the  expense. 

We  then  made  a  study  of  the  salable  property  on 
Church  Street.  Teacher's  purpose  :  —  To  enable  the 
child  to  study  and  understand  investments  for  present 
and  future  use.  Through  those  investments,  to  review 
interest,  mortgages,  bank  discount,  insurance,  partial 
payments,  and  to  study  the  local  Building  and  Loan 
Associations. 

On  Church  Street  between  State  and  Peach,  the 
pupils  found  no  property  for  sale.  On  South  Church 
Street  they  found  that,  in  the  second  block  on  South 
Church  Street,  the  Lewis  lot,  29^-  feet  by  100  feet,  was 
for  sale.  Price  $9000.  Mr.  Lewis  told  the  committee 
that  he  had  paid  $3600  for  it  and  that  if  the  street 
were  improved  he  would  ask  a  higher  price.  We 
decided  not  to  invest  in  this  lot. 


APPLICATION  OF  THE   PROJECT  METHOD       255 

In  the  third  block  on  South  Church  Street  we  found 
a  seventeen-room  house  for  sale.  In  the  fourth  block, 
we  found  two  places  for  sale,  one  residence  for  $8000, 
but  the  owner  would  not  sell  if  the  street  was  to  be 
improved.  We  gave  this  place  no  further  considera- 
tion. The  other  place  in  this  block  was  on  the  market 
for  $15,000,  but  to  us,  at  the  present  time,  undesirable. 

Upon  further  consideration  we  thought  the  seven- 
teen-room  house  might  be  a  good  investment.  At 
present  it  rents  for  fifty  dollars  a  month  and  is  used 
for  a  rooming  house.  After  deducting  taxes,  insur- 
ance, and  making  allowance  for  repairs,  we  found  fifty 
dollars  a  month  a  very  poor  income  from  $15,000. 

We  decided  to  buy  this  property,  making  a  cash 
payment  of  $5000  and  the  remainder  in  monthly  pay- 
ments of  $100.  The  rate  of  interest  was  6  per  cent. 
Here  we  made  a  study  of  contracts,  mortgages,  and 
Building  and  Loan  Associations.  The  class  found 
that  we  had  two  such  associations  in  Rockford  and 
a  committee  from  the  class  called  on  each  and  studied 
its  business  methods. 

The  class  found  that,  if  this  property  were  bought, 
the  purchaser  would  have  to  assume  the  responsibility 
of  the  taxes  and  insurance.  A  member  of  the  class 
brought  in  insurance  literature  which  was  studied  by 
the  class.  Both  fire  and  life  insurance  policies  were 
brought  to  class  and  investigated.  In  connection  with 
life  insurance,  we  studied  "  old-line "  accident  and 
life  insurance. 


256        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

The  definite  outcome  of  this  project  was  shown  on 
the  pupil's  papers.  The  summary  of  one  is  given  here  : 

Result  of  House  Problem 

$15,000       —  Price  asked  for  the  house. 
$5,000       —  Cash  payment. 
$100       —  Monthly  payments. 

6%  —  Rate  of  interest. 

(Problem  was  fully  worked  out  in  partial  payments.     Follow- 
ing is  summary.) 
$13,800.00  —  Amount  paid  in  138  months  —  $100  payment 

monthly. 

97.63  —  Balance  due  the  139th  month. 
$13,897.63 
5,000.00 

$18,897.63  —  Total  amount  paid. 
15,000.00 
$3,897.63  —  Interest  paid. 

We  found  that  it  would  take  11  years  and  7  months  to  pay 
for  the  house,  during  which  time  we  would  have  to  pay  the 
taxes,  insurance,  and  repairs,  therefore  we  concluded  that  the 
transaction  would  be  a  poor  investment. 

A  Project  in  Solid  Geometry.  —  The  following  project 
was  used  in  a  class  in  solid  geometry  composed  of  twelve 
boys.  The  class  had  been  studying  mensuration  and 
volumes,  when  the  instructor  happened  to  hear  of  the 
possible  project.  At  the  home  of  one  of  the  members 
of  the  class  the  construction  of  a  driveway  was  con- 
templated. The  information  desired  was  :  Which  side 
of  the  house  would  be  the  better  place  for  it,  and,  then, 
how  much  excavation  and  how  much  material  would 


APPLICATION   OF   THE   PROJECT   METHOD       257 

be  required  for  its  construction  ?  The  class  was  given 
the  project  and  given  two  days  to  work  out  the  solu- 
tion. The  result  proved  to  be  accurate  and  satis- 
factory in  every  particular. 

A  Project  in  Solid  Geometry,  Physics,  and  Manual 
Training.  —  Another  project  used  in  this  class  cut 
across  three  subjects.  The  boys  needed  a  number 
of  shots  for  spring  athletics.  It  was  found  that  a 
local  foundry  would  cast  them  for  a  mere  fraction  of 
the  cost  at  which  they  could  be  procured  at  a  sport- 
ing goods  house.  However,  the  foundry  needed 
a  model.  The  physics  class  was  appealed  to  for  in- 
formation as  to  the  mass  and  volume  of  the  iron  in 
order  that  the  shot  should  be  of  correct  weight.  The 
teacher  reported  an  unprecedented  interest  in  the 
rather  dry  subject  of  density  and  specific  gravity. 
The  solid  geometry  class  was  consulted  as  to  the  method 
of  finding  the  volume  of  a  sphere,  and  when  the  data 
were  complete,  they  were  taken  to  the  woodworking 
room  of  the  manual  training  department,  where  the 
spherical  model  was  made.  When  the  shots  were  de- 
livered from  the  foundry,  it  was  proved  that  the  classes 
had  done  very  accurate  work  as  the  shots  varied  less 
than  a  quarter  pound  from  the  necessary  weight. 

A  Project  in  Arithmetic  in  the  Grades.  —  The  pur- 
pose of  this  project  was  to  learn  to  determine  the 
amount  of  wall-paper  needed  for  the  rooms  in  the 
children's  homes  and  to  determine  the  validity  of  the 
paper  hanger's  account. 


258        THE  PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

There  is  always  more  or  less  paper-hanging  done 
in  every  school  district.  The  teacher  may  presuppose 
that  this  will  take  place  every  spring  and  plan  for  the 
occasion  by  finding  out,  among  the  pupils,  which 
families  are  going  to  do  papering.  Interest  may  be 
aroused  by  asking  the  children  if  they  do  not  wish  to 
be  of  help  to  their  parents  by  measuring  the  rooms 
and  figuring  the  amount  of  paper  necessary  and  by 
this  method  save  the  parents'  money  and  time.  It  is 
a  fact  that  many  paper  hangers  waste  paper  and  charge 
the  customer  for  more  material  and  labor  than  is 
necessary.  Paper  hangers  are  paid  by  the  bolt  as 
well  as  for  the  paper.  The  more  bolts  cut,  the  greater 
the  profit.  This  situation  offers  a  good  chance  to 
interest  the  pupils  in  papering  problems. 

A   PROJECT  IN  BIOLOGY 

Relation  of  Wheat  Rust  to  Barberry.  —  During  the 
spring  of  1918,  when  our  government  was  doing  its 
utmost  to  conserve  wheat,  the  botany  classes  of  the 
Urbana  (Illinois)  High  School  (three  classes  with  a 
total  of  sixty  students)  carried  on  a  project  which  had 
as  its  aim  a  lessening  of  the  enormous  loss  of  wheat 
due  to  wheat  rust. 

We  proceeded  as  follows  : 

1.  We  made  a  laboratory  study  of  the  life  history 
of  wheat  rust  (Puccinia  graminis),  during  which  we 
found  that  the  early  spring  spores  of  wheat  rust  must 
be  parasitic  on  the  common  barberry  (Berberis  vul- 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  PROJECT  METHOD      259 

garis)  if  they  are  to  germinate ;  consequently  the 
extermination  of  the  common  barberry  in  Illinois 
would  mean  the  extermination  of  wheat  rust. 

2.  We  brought  into  the  schoolroom  as  many  news- 
paper and  current  magazine  articles  as  we  could  find 
concerning  the  relation  between  wheat  rust  and  the 
barberry.     One  member  of  the  class,  who  had  a  friend 
in  the  government  service  as  an  investigator  of  wheat 
rust,  had  some  original  information  to  give  us. 

3.  We  made  an  examination  of  the  shrubs  in  our 
school  yard,  and  found  seven  of  the  dangerous  barberry 
plants  right  at  our  very  door.     These  we  examined 
very  carefully  so  that  we  might  be  certain  of  their 
identity.     Then  with  great  ceremony  we  dug  them  up  ; 
for  several  of  the  girls  had  written  poems  entitled 
"  Ode  to  the  Death  of  the  Barberry  "  to  be  read  on 
this  occasion.     The  best  "  Ode  "  was  printed  in  the 
school  newspaper. 

4.  About  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  class  volun- 
teered for  the   real  work,   and  these   students   were 
organized  in  teams  of  two.     A  committee  elected  by 
the  students  secured  a  map  of  the  town,  and  assigned 
each  team  a  given  part  of  the  town  to  be  inspected, 
in  such  a  way  that   not  a  dooryard  or  a  lawn  was 
omitted  by  the   student   inspectors.     Even   the   city 
park  did  not  escape. 

5.  Wherever  common  barberry  plants  were  found, 
the  students  explained   to  the  property  owners  how 
these  shrubs  were  lessening  our  supply  of  wheat,  and 


260         THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

suggested  their  removal.  The  students  made  their 
records  on  cards,  in  each  case  telling  whether  the 
property  owner  promised  or  refused  removal  of  the 
shrubs. 

6.  Reports  of  all  the  students  were  tabulated  by 
a  committee,  —  the  tabulated  report  showing  (a)  the 
number  of  barberry  plants  in  the  city ;   (6)  the  number 
of  property  owners  possessing  these  shrubs ;    (c)  the 
number  of  property  owners  who  promised  to  remove 
the  shrubs ;  (d)  the  number  who  refused.     This  final 
report  was  printed  in  the  city's  daily  paper. 

7.  When  a  rumor  reached  us  that  some  one  in  the 
City  Council  was  to  propose  an  ordinance  providing 
for  the  eradication  of  the  barberry,  we  sent  a  repre- 
sentative to  the  city  council's  meeting,  with  the  exact 
data    concerning   barberry  plants   in   the   city.     Un- 
fortunately the  council  passed  the  ordinance  without 
discussion,  and  there  was  no  need  of  the  boy's  data. 

Since  the  extermination  of  barberry  now  became 
the  duty  of  the  city  police  force  and  not  of  the  high- 
school  botany  classes,  our  project  had  now  reached  its 
end. 

Results.  —  1.  Even  the  poorest  student  knew  the 
life  history  of  wheat  rust,  and  its  relation  to  barberry. 

2.  Very  great  class  interest.  Before  we  were  through 
canvassing  the  town,  a  wealthy  citizen  telephoned  to 
the  school  for  two  "  experts"  to  examine  his  shrubs  for 
barberry.  Imagine  how  important  our  boy  "  experts  " 
felt  I 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  PROJECT  METHOD      261 

3.  A  large  number  of  barberry  plants  were  actually 
removed,  and  we  thus  helped  our  government  to  con- 
serve the  wheat. 

May  I  add  that  this  project  took  only  about  a  week 
of  class  time,  for  the  students  wanted  to  work  outside. 

PROJECTS  IN  HOME  ECONOMICS 

A  Remodeling  Project.  —  The  project  is  to  make 
over  a  girl's  room  so  that  it  shall  be  artistically  satisfy- 
ing, mentally  stimulating,  and  mechanically  con- 
venient. 

Method  of  Procedure.  —  Each  girl  shall  determine  the 
meaning  and  purpose  of  the  house  and  the  home  and 
what  they  signify.  Furnish  reading  and  discuss  it  with 
her.  Give  sufficient  time  for  clarifying  ideas.  A  note- 
book shall  record  the  various  phases  of  the  project. 

The  students  should  be  given  the  opportunity  to 
discover  some  principles  in  art  as  applied  to  a  room. 
For  example :  why  not  place  rugs  diagonally ;  why 
not  hang  pictures  by  a  wire  and  one  nail ;  why  is  one 
design  good ;  another  bad ;  etc.  Observations  shall 
be  made  to  clarify  the  problems.  Readings  and  dis- 
cussions shall  lead  to  their  solution. 

Each  pupil  shall  make  a  drawing  of  the  room,  giving  di- 
mensions, locating  position  of  furniture,  windows,  and 
doors,  and  indicating  exposure  of  room,  and  means  of 
heating.  The  furniture  and  articles  in  the  room  shall 
be  described  in  detail. 

Each   pupil   shall   make   a   plan   for   the  proposed 


262        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

changes.  A  generous  supply  of  illustrations  shall  be 
available  for  the  study.  Plans  shall  include  reasons 
for  any  change  proposed,  involving  whatever  principles 
of  art  the  pupil  may  have  learned  or  developed.  Other 
principles  will  be  developed  as  the  project  proceeds. 
Changes  may  include : 

1.  Cleaning  of  wall  paper  or,  perhaps,  repapering. 

2.  Remodeling  and  refinishing  of  furniture.     New 
furniture  is  not  included  in  the  scheme. 

3.  Remodeling  and  rehanging  of  draperies  or  cur- 
tains. 

4.  Selection  and  hanging  of  pictures. 

5.  Re-placing  of  furniture. 

6.  Floor  covering. 

7.  Whatever  small  buying  may  be  agreed  upon. 

8.  Mending  of  door  latches,  hooks  and  hangers, 
knobs  on  dressers,  etc. 

9.  Device  for  ventilation. 

The  pupil  shall  write  out  in  detail  changes  proposed. 
These  shall  be  discussed  and  any  changes  that  seem 
desirable  may  be  talked  over  and  agreed  upon.  If 
any  radical  change  is  proposed  in  the  color  scheme,  it 
shall  be  illustrated  by  a  sample. 

When  finished,  the  results  shall  be  checked  up, 
the  principles  reviewed,  and  the  notebook  completed. 

Time  for  the  project,  three  to  five  months. 

A  Project  in  Dietetics.  —  The  object  of  the  follow- 
ing project  was  to  determine  how  much  food  a  person 
should  eat  each  day.  We  took  into  consideration 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  PROJECT  METHOD      263 

our  occupations  and  the  average  weight  of  the  class. 
We  were  then  told  to  figure  out  a  day's  menu  on  this 
scale.  Using  this  menu,  we  prepared  and  ate  three 
meals  in  the  domestic  science  department  on  one  day. 
These  meals  furnished  all  the  food  that  we  ate  that 
day.  In  this  way  we  were  impressed  with  the  fact 
that  ordinarily  a  person  eats  too  much,  and  not  a  suf- 
ficiently varied  diet.  We  took  much  more  interest  in 
the  problem  of  preparing  our  menu,  knowing  that  we 
should  have  to  eat  what  we  planned,  than  we  would 
have  taken  in  planning  some  representative  menu  only 
to  be  recorded  in  our  notebooks.  The  facts  taught 
by  this  project  made  more  emphatic  in  our  minds 
the  actual  doing  of  the  thing  planned. 

A  Project  in  Cooking.  —  In  one  of  the  domestic 
science  classes  of  a  southern  school,  a  plan  was  formu- 
lated to  serve  cheap  but  nutritious  lunches.  The  girls 
planned  their  meals  so  as  to  use  as  many  as  possible 
of  the  substitutes  advocated  by  the  United  States 
Food  Administration.  They  obtained  much  valuable 
experience  in  practical  cooking  which  they  were  able 
to  use  in  their  own  homes.  The  school  has  been  able, 
through  its  lunch  department,  to  pay  a  portion  of  the 
expenses  of  the  domestic  science  department. 

PROJECTS  IN  PHYSICS 

A  Project  in  Ventilation.  —  Ventilation  :  Why  and 
How  Do  It?  Guide  questions  and  problems  for  plan- 
ning and  working  out  the  project : 


264        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

1.  What  are  the  respective  lengths  of  time  a  person 
can  live  without  food,  without  water,  and  without  air  ? 

2.  Which  have  you  considered  most  important  and 
why? 

3.  Is  it  likely  that  lack  of  ventilation  has  been  and 
is  the  cause  of  physical  imperfections  and  social  in- 
efficiency?    Ventilation  plays   an  important  part  in 
the  treatment  of  what  infectious  disease? 

4.  How  does  a  knowledge  and  understanding  of 
the  question  offer  an  opportunity  for  performing  a 
social  service? 

5.  What  is  the  attitude  of  the  industrial  world 
toward  ventilation  ? 

6.  What    are   the    requirements    for   the    air   we 
breathe?     Examine  the  floors  and  furniture  in  houses 
and  reflect  upon  the  composition  of  the  body  and  effect 
of  air  upon  it. 

7.  What  changes  in  the  ventilation  of  our  houses 
does  this  suggest,  and  how  could  they  be  accomplished  ? 

8.  Suggest    ways    for    humidifying    the    air :    in 
homes  ;  in  public  buildings. 

9.  List  the  number  of  churches,  schools,  town  halls, 
stores,  houses,  in  which  there  is  some  device  for  humidi- 
fying the  air. 

10.  What  plan  will  suit  your  home  ? 

11.  What  other  quality  must  air  possess  in  order 
to  make  it  comfortable  and  healthful  ? 

12.  What  relation  do  these  requirements  bear  to 
each  other? 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  PROJECT  METHOD       265 

13.  What  are  the  methods  for  warming  not  heating 
the  air,  and  how  do  they  influence  ventilation  ? 

14.  Is  there  still  another  requirement  for  the  air  we 
breathe  ? 

15.  It  is  no  longer  believed  that  ventilation  is  wholly 
an  engineer's  problem.     That  being  the  case,  upon 
whom  are  we  now  depending?     How  do  you  explain 
this  changed  attitude? 

Refer  to  physiology,  physics,  and  chemistry  and 
help  discover  that  now  we  turn  from  chemistry  to 
physics  —  from  the  lungs  to  the  skin.  Heat  which 
the  body  must  get  rid  of  is  carried  away  through  the 
skin  by  conduction,  convection,  evaporation.  These 
processes  are  hindered  or  promoted  by  air  surround- 
ing our  bodies.  Observe  and  ask  for  explanations  of 
humid  days,  "  dry  "  days,  cold  and  warm  days.  Re- 
call people  sleeping  in  church ;  children  in  school ; 
sunstroke. 

16.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  electric  fan? 

17.  What  are  the  methods  in  use  for  ventilating 
houses  ?     Public  buildings  ? 

18.  Upon  what  principle  do  the  devices  used  in  resi- 
dences operate?     In  large  pubb'o  buildings? 

19.  What  objections  to  the  method  used  in  resi- 
dences ?    How  overcome  them  ? 

20.  Have  student  attend  to  ventilation  of  school- 
room, or  inspect  the  system  and  offer  suggestions  if  not 
found  satisfactory  to  him. 

21.  What    plan   has  student  devised  for  his  own 


266        THE   PROJECT  METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

room?    The  barn  where  animals  are  kept  if  he  has 
one? 

22.  What  interest  have  we  in  the  ventilation  of 
the  stables  for  cows?    Chance  here  for  work  on  im- 
provement of  milk  supply. 

23.  Cost  of  ventilation.     Does  it  pay  ? 

Very  excellent  material  is  now  published  on  the 
subject  of  ventilation.  I  should  make  it  available  to 
the  student.  It  is  my  opinion  that  the  student  will 
inspect  and  finally  devise  a  plan  of  ventilation  to  meet 
the  needs  of  his  home. 

The  Automobile.  —  The  automobile  furnishes  excel- 
lent illustrations  for  most  of  the  principles  in  physics. 
In  one  of  the  large  city  high  schools  the  automobile 
was  made  the  unit  or  basis  of  the  practical  work  in 
physics.  It  was  surprising  how  few  principles  in  physics 
could  not  be  illustrated  in  this  way.  If  the  prin- 
ciples developed  and  illustrated  in  this  project  are 
later  arranged  in  a  logical  order  and  reviewed,  prob- 
ably with  additional  illustrations,  the  method  will 
produce  satisfactory  results.  The  systematic  drill  is 
very  important  and  must  not  be  slighted. 

The  Fireless  Cooker.  —  The  study  of  the  principles 
of  the  fireless  cooker  and  the  construction  of  one  for 
the  home  makes  a  good  project.  This  project  will 
involve  the  study  of  the  conductivity  of  different 
liquids,  solids,  and  gases  and  the  different  means  by 
which  heat  is  transferred. 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  PROJECT  METHOD     267 

PROJECTS  IN  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES 

A  Project  in  German.  —  This  project  was  tried  the 
first  year  that  German  had  been  introduced  as  a  subject 
in  the  course.  The  class  consisted  of  freshmen  and 
sophomores.  We  had  discarded  the  direct  method  of 
teaching  German  only  because  of  inability  to  secure  a 
teacher  who  could  handle  the  language  fluently.  Con- 
versational exercises  had,  however,  been  a  part  of 
each  recitation  and  the  class  did  considerable  reading. 
It  was  proposed  to  have  a  German  party  and  dinner 
at  which  only  German  should  be  spoken. 

Arrangements  for  the  party  included  a  study  of 
the  common  articles  of  food  characteristically  German. 
These  comprised  the  menu  of  the  dinner.  Habits  of 
dress  and  conduct  of  the  various  German  classes  were 
studied  in  so  far  as  possible  and  these  were  represented 
in  costume  and  conversation.  The  rules  of  the  game 
were  that  no  word  was  to  be  spoken  save  in  German. 
No  attention  was  to  be  paid  at  the  table  to  any  one 
asking  for  a  dish  unless  the  request  was  in  correct 
German,  nor  should  the  dishes  be  passed  without  this 
request.  The  "  toasts  "  were  prepared  and  given  in 
German. 

The  preparation  on  the  part  of  the  students  con- 
sisted in  the  study  of  the  menu  and  appropriate 
table  manners,  the  preparation  of  the  "toasts,"  and 
the  working  out  of  a  vocabulary  for  certain  topics  of 
conversation. 


268         THE  PROJECT  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

As  an  incentive  and  model,  some  students  not  in  the 
German  class  but  who  spoke  German  in  their  homes 
were  invited. 

This  could  not  be  called  a  true  project  for  the  set- 
ting was  entirely  artificial.  The  exercise  served  ad- 
mirably to  motivate  the  work  and  seemed  worth  while 
from  the  standpoint  of  acquiring  a  vocabulary. 

A  Project  in  French.  —  Many  of  our  soldiers  learned 
French  by  the  project  method.  They  were  placed  in 
situations  which  demanded  a  knowledge  of  the  lan- 
guage. The  desire  to  make  purchases  and  to  converse 
with  the  French  people  acted  as  a  powerful  stimulus 
to  acquire  a  speaking  vocabulary.  If  our  French 
classes  could  correspond  with  students  in  France,  the 
scheme  would  approach  the  project  method. 

PROJECTS  CUTTING  ACROSS  SEVERAL  FIELDS  OF 
SUBJECT  MATTER 

Construction  and  Furnishing  of  a  Bungalow  Cottage.1 
—  The  teacher's  purpose  was  to  furnish  a  live  problem 
which  would  carry  a  review  of  arithmetic,  the  various 
operations,  and  their  application  in  measurements  and 
costs.  The  working  out  of  the  problem  revealed 
several  advantages  of  the  project  method  over  the 
"  study-recite  "  method.  It  furnished  a  motive  which 
sent  each  pupil  out  to  seek  material  and  information 
wherever  he  could  secure  it.  The  problems  involved 

1  A  project  reported  by  Minnie  Murtfelt,  teacher  of  the  seventh 
grade,  Kishwaukee  School,  Rockford,  Illinois. 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  PROJECT  METHOD      269 

were  more  easily  taught  and  more  easily  understood 
because  they  were  more  interesting  than  the  ones  in 
the  book.  A  greater  amount  of  work  was  successfully 
covered  in  a  given  time.  The  girls  and  boys  gained 
the  power  to  image  the  problem ;  they  pictured  every 
step  in  the  building  of  the  bungalow  as  far  as  we  were 
able  to  go. 

Having  decided  in  my  own  mind  that  this  would  be 
of  vital  interest  to  the  pupils,  I  led  up  to  the  plan  by 
a  few  questions.  Before  many  minutes  the  girls  and 
boys  were  entering  into  the  discussion  with  questions 
and  ideas  that  came  to  their  minds :  "  My  father  is  a 
contractor  and  I  can  find  out  about  houses  " ;  "  My 
father  builds  houses  and  I  can  bring  some  plans." 
The  next  step  was  to  decide  what  size  the  house 
should  be,  what  its  position  should  be,  and  about  what 
it  should  cost.  Here  the  children  took  the  initiative 
and  went  out  and  investigated  for  themselves.  They 
found  that  a  modern  bungalow  cottage  would  cost 
from  $4500  to  $5000.  They  brought  in  books,  maga- 
zines, blue  prints.  They  went  to  the  public  library 
and  found  books  containing  plans.  After  carefully 
examining  the  various  plans,  I  asked  each  child  to 
draw  the  plan  of  a  house  such  as  he  would  like  to  live 
in.  These  plans  were  discussed  and  the  good  and  bad 
points  pointed  out.  The  best  one,  with  perhaps  a 
few  changes,  was  put  on  the  blackboard,  and  all  drew 
accurately  to  a  scale  of  \"  to  1'.  This  gave  them 
excellent  drill  in  ratio  and  proportion.  Now  we  were 


270         THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

ready  to  lay  off  our  lot  and  place  the  corners  for  the 
house.  We  did  this  on  the  school  grounds  with  the 
use  of  the  carpenter's  measuring  line.  I  wanted  them 
to  have  the  real  size  in  mind,  so  we  used  exact  measures, 
the  lot  50  ft.  X 120  ft.,  and  the  house  28  ft.  X38  ft. ;  the 
house  to  be  20  ft.  from  the  street  and  to  be  on  a  line 
with  the  other  houses  in  the  block. 

In  connection  with  the  class  work,  I  decided,  if  it 
could  be  arranged,  to  have  a  real  house  built,  but  did 
not  see  at  first  just  how  it  was  to  be  accomplished. 
When  I  spoke  of  it,  one  boy  said,  "  My  father  will 
build  us  a  small  house."  Still  that  would  not  be  so 
good  as  to  have  the  boys  build  it  themselves.  Finally, 
our  manual  training  teacher  aided  us  in  bringing  about 
the  desired  result.  The  work  has  been  of  vital  interest 
to  the  children  because,  as  one  boy  put  it,  "  We  are 
doing  a  man's  job." 

It  became  evident  that  not  only  the  children  were 
interested  but  the  parents  as  well.  One  mother  came 
over  to  see  me  before  school  to  bring  some  material 
and  to  tell  me  how  much  her  boy  talked  about  the  real 
house.  Several  of  the  parents  have  come  to  see  the 
building  in  progress  and  have  thought  the  work  prac- 
tical and  the  problems  more  suitable  than  so  many  that 
are  given  in  the  books.  One  parent,  who  is  a  foreman 
in  one  of  the  factories,  furnished  a  good  part  of  the 
lumber. 

Below  are  given  some  of  the  problems  that  we 
have  been  working.  All  the  children  have  worked  all 


APPLICATION   OF  THE  PROJECT  METHOD       271 

the  problems,  some  by  short  cuts,  as  the  carpenter 
would  work  them.  Problems  originating  in  the  shop 
room  were  brought  upstairs.  The  boys  were  called 
upon  to  explain  the  various  phases  of  the  work,  the 
test  of  their  explanations  being  how  well  the  girls 
understood.  All  problems  were  solved  with  the  house 
before  us  in  the  classroom.  One  boy's  question,  "  How 
are  we  going  to  pay  for  this  house?  "  led  to  several 
visits  to  banks,  the  procuring  of  blank  forms  and 
information,  and  a  motivated  review  of  bank  accounts, 
borrowing,  and  various  phases  of  interest. 

When  the  building  part  is  completed,  the  girls  will 
have  the  big  job  of  furnishing  the  house  and  I  hope  to 
have  them  do  it  in  connection  with  the  domestic  science 
work  next  year,  bringing  their  problems  to  the  boys. 

Problems 

I.   Corners  of  lot  40' X 120'  laid  off  on  school  grounds. 
Corners  for  house  38'X28'  placed  on  lot. 
House  to  face  the  east  and  20'  from  the  street. 

II.  Plan  of  house  decided  upon  and  drawn  accurately  to  the 
scale  of  i"  to  1'. 

III.  Basement  to  have  furnace  room,  laundry  room,  and  room 

for  fruit  and  vegetables. 
Main  floor  of  six  rooms  and  bath. 
Attic  to  have  two  large  rooms. 
Foundation  of  concrete  with  brick  30"  above  ground. 

IV.  Construction  of  foundation. 

Use  soft  pine  f "  thick  and  7"  wide  for  concrete  and  brick, 
painting  upper  30"  a  brownish  red  for  brick  imitation. 


272         THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

Make  wall  28"X38"  exact  outside  measure  and  7"  high. 

Cut  window  openings  3"X2|"  and  put  in  window  frames 
of  \"  material. 

Put  in  cross  walls  7"  high  of  \"  pine  for  concrete ;  one  under 
partition  between  living  room  and  dining  room;  one 
under  partition  between  front  chamber  and  bath;  and 
one  under  partition  running  lengthwise  13^"  long  near 
center. 

Cover  bottom  with  \"  boards. 

V.    Basement : 

1.  Excavation. 

Give  the  cost  at  50  cents  per  cubic  yard  of  excavation 
for  cellar  28'X38'X4£'.  Amount  of  earth  removed 
and  what  it  would  be  worth  if  sold. 

2.  Foundation.     Number  of  cubic  feet  of  concrete  in  a 

9"  wall  4i'  high  for  house  28'X38'  outside. 

3.  Cross  wall  in  cellar. 

How  many  cubic  feet  in  9"  cross  wall  7'  high,  one 
being  26?'  long  and  the  other  13|'  long,  allowing  for 
two  doorways  3'  wide  and  6'  6"  high  ? 

4.  How  many  cubic  yards  in  all  the  walls  ? 

5.  How  many  cubic  yards  in  the  3"  floor  of  basement 

26£'X36£',  allowing  for  two  9"  cross  walls,  one 
26£'  long  and  the  other  13£'? 

6.  How  much  gravel  will  it  take  for  the  entire  wall  and 

floor? 

7.  How  many  sacks  of  cement  for  wall,  the  cement  add- 

ing nothing  to  bulk,  if  three  sacks  to  the  yard  are 
needed  ? 

8.  Cost  of  concrete  floor  and  concrete  walls  when  gravel 

costs  $1.70  per  yard  delivered,  and  cement  costs 
$2.40  per  sack  delivered,  and  it  takes  five  men  two 
eight-hour  days  at  80  cents  per  hour  to  complete  it. 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  PROJECT  METHOD     273 

9.  How  many  bricks  in  a  9"  wall  30"  above  ground  allow- 
ing for  eight  cellar  windows  1\'  by  3',  there  being 
twenty-two  bricks  to  the  cubic  foot?  Also  give 
cost  of  brick  wall  counting  it  10  per  cent  more  per 
cubic  foot  of  wall  than  concrete. 

10.  Find  the  number  of  board  feet  in  two  6"X10"  beams 

used  for  the  ends  of  joists  to  rest  on,  near  the  middle 
of  basement,  one  being  13'1"  long  and  the  other  12' 
long. 

11.  How  much  2"  lumber  for  eight  cellar  windows,  frames 

8"  wide  and  12"  long  ? 

12.  Figure  the  cost  of  two  beams  and  the  cellar  window 

frames  at  $80  per  M. 

13.  Total  cost  of  entire  basement  made  ready  for  floor. 

a.  Excavation. 

b.  Concrete. 

c.  Brick. 

d.  Window  frames  and  two  beams. 

(The  above  includes  the  best  of  material,  extra  strong  wall, 
and  union  labor  wages.) 

Construction  of  Joists,  Rough  Floor,  and  Cellar  Steps 

1.  One  row  of  2X10  joists  is  13'  1J"  long.     The  other  row 
is  14'  1\".     How  many  in  each  row  if  they  are  16"  apart  and  if 
one  extra  one  is  used  for  one  end  ? 

2.  If  2X  10's  are  spiked  on  ends  of  joists  how  many  of  them 
16'  long  are  needed  ? 

3.  Material  for  joists  J"X|". 

4.  Give  cost  of  joists  and  steps  at  $80  per  M. 

5.  Lay  rough  floor  cornerwise  of  J"  material. 

6.  What  is  the  cost  of  the  rough  floor  at  $40  per  M. 

7.  Cost  of  joists,  rough  floor,  and  steps  (without  labor)  is  ? 


274        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

Studding  on  Main  Floor 

1.  Studding  for  all  room  walls. 
55—2X4-18'  long  for  outside  walls. 
45-2X4—18'  long  for  partitions. 
22—2X4—18'  long  for  plate  and  under  piece. 

2.  Cost  of  above  at  $60  per  M. 


Sheeting  for  House 

1.  How  much  ship-lap  for  sheeting  the  outside  of  building, 
allowing  nothing  for  waste  in  windows  and  doors  ? 

Cost  of  ship-lap  at  $80  per  M  ? 

Find  cost  of  flooring  for  two  floors  at  $90  per  M,  adding  $  for 
waste  and  matching. 

Stairs 

1.  How  many  steps  will  it  take  with  an  8"  rise  to  reach  the 
top  floor  10'  above  the  bottom  floor? 

2.  How  many  treads  needed  ? 

3.  Considering  200  board  feet  in  stairs,  averaging  $100  per 
M,  what  will  they  cost? 

Rafters 

1.  Find  length  of  long  rafter,  peak  being  18'  above  plate 
and  front  of  porch  29'  from  a  point  beneath  peak  and  allowing 
2'  for  tail  at  lower  end  of  rafter. 

2.  Find  cost  of  long  rafters  using  seventy-four  2"X6"— 18' 
long  at  $80  per  M. 

3.  Find  cost  of  roof  boards  at  $60  per  M,  adding  $  for  waste 
and  dormer  roof,  the  boards  to  run  out  2'  over  the  gables. 

In  carrying  the  project  to  completion,  problems  arose  in 
manual  training,  arithmetic,  and  domestic  art. 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  PROJECT  METHOD      275 

Study  of  Pastoral  People  and  Wool.1 

Teacher's  Purpose.  —  To  teach  the  children  to  ap- 
preciate and  understand  some  phases  of  their  own  life 
and  experience  through  teaching  them  the  life  of  the 
Hebrew  people  as  a  type  of  shepherds. 

Development.  —  The  first  step  which  led  to  the  de- 
velopment of  this  project  was  the  making  of  a  wool 
mat,  an  industrial  art  problem.  This  mat  naturally 
led  to  the  question :  "  Where  do  we  get  the  wool  for 
making  our  mats?  "  The  children  had  learned  in 
lower  grades  that  wool  came  from  sheep  and  so  we 
began  discussing  sheep  —  their  care,  etc. 

A  collection  of  pictures  was  then  made  by  the  chil- 
dren and  carefully  examined  and  discussed  by  the  class. 
We  have  a  lantern  in  our  building  and  I  was  fortunate 
enough  to  secure  slides  representing  shepherd  life  and 
the  Hebrew  people.  The  children  now  knew  that 
the  Hebrews  were  a  pastoral  people  and  so  the  story 
of  Joseph  was  read  to  them  and  later  retold  by  them. 
The  Twenty-third  Psalm  was  also  memorized. 

Having  become  very  much  interested  in  sheep  and 
shepherd  life,  a  trip  was  made  to  a  small  sheep  farm 
near  by.  Here  much  was  learned  about  the  habits, 
food,  care,  and  shearing  of  sheep,  and  the  price  of  wool. 

A  pelt  was  secured  and  was  sheared  by  hand  by  the 
children.  We  discussed  this  method  of  shearing  by 
hand  and  also  the  method  used  to-day,  which  was 

1  A  project  reported  by  Emma  Johnson,  teacher  of  third  grade,  O.  F. 
Harbour  School,  Rockford,  Illinois. 


276        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF  TEACHING 

demonstrated  on  our  visit  to  the  farm.  Pans  of  warm 
water  and  soap  were  provided  and  each  child  washed 
some  dirty,  greasy  wool.  Then  a  discussion  took  place 
concerning  the  effects  of  hot  and  hard  water  on  wool 
and  woolen  fabrics. 

The  children  now  saw  that  the  men  in  the  factory 
must  have  some  machine  with  which  to  straighten  the 
fibers.  We  were  not  able  to  secure  cards  strong  enough 
to  card  our  wool,  so  when  our  spinning  wheel  was 
secured,  the  class  readily  saw  that  a  smooth,  even  yarn 
could  not  be  spun.  They  then  saw  the  importance  of 
cards. 

Becoming  interested  in  the  modern  factory  method 
of  carding,  spinning,  and  weaving,  Miss  Sheldon  ac- 
companied us  to  the  woolen  mill  where  we  had  a  chance 
to  see  all  the  processes  by  machine. 

This  project  carried  the  work  of  the  grade  into  the 
following  subjects : 

I.  Construction  and  Design.  —  The  project  centered 
on  the  making  of  a  wool  book,  sewed  and  designed  by 
the   class   and   containing  pictures   of  shepherd   life ; 
samples  of  unwashed  and  washed  wool ;  wool  carded 
and   spun  by   machinery ;    written   stories   on  trips, 
shearing,  and  washing  of  wool.     Mauve's  pictures  were 
studied  in  the  art  appreciation  class. 

II.  Language.  —  In  addition  to  the  written  language 
mentioned  above,  the  story  of  Joseph  was  retold  and 
dramatized,  and  letters  of  thanks  were  written  to  guides 
in  places  we  visited. 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  PROJECT  METHOD      277 

III.  Spelling. —  Study  of  words  needed  in  written 
description. 

IV.  Arithmetic.  —  Problems  based  on  manufactured 
goods,  raw  wool,  etc. 

V.  Music.  —  Gaynor  songs  about  "  wool." 

VI.  Handwork.  —  Sand-table      representation      of 
Joseph. 

SUMMARY 

A  careful  study  of  the  projects  cited  in  this  chapter 
is  sufficient  to  show  the  great  interest  that  may  be 
aroused  by  this  method,  and  that  it  is  possible  to  teach, 
at  least  certain  units  of  the  elementary  and  high  school 
subjects,  by  the  project  method.  No  attempt  has 
been  made  in  this  book  to  organize  a  subject  for  teach- 
ing, completely  on  the  project  basis. 

Before  the  teacher  attempts  to  teach  a  subject  by 
this  method,  certain  suggestions  should  be  considered. 
The  teacher  should,  first  of  all,  survey  the  subject 
planned  for  teaching  in  order  to  enumerate  all  the 
facts,  principles,  and  processes  which  are  to  be  taught. 
This  material  should  be  arranged  in  a  logical  or  system- 
atic order.  Then  the  projects  which  the  teacher  ex- 
pects to  use  in  this  subject  should  be  outlined  to  see 
how  much  of  the  material,  logically  arranged,  will  be 
taken  care  of  by  these  projects. 

It  is  probable  that  many  facts,  principles,  and 
processes  which  should  be  taught  are  not  provided  for 
in  these  projects.  Projects  should  be  developed  for 
these  items  of  knowledge.  If  it  is  found  difficult  to 


278        THE   PROJECT   METHOD   OF   TEACHING 

provide  projects  for  these  facts,  or  if  the  project  method 
seems  to  be  uneconomical,  then  the  problem  method 
or  the  method  of  presenting  the  material  systematically 
should  be  utilized.  There  should  be  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  projects  emphasizing  the  same  facts  to  provide 
for  habits  and  skills. 

After  the  facts  have  been  introduced  and  taught  by 
the  project  method,  the  material  should  be  arranged 
in  a  logical  order  and  drilled  upon  until  a  systematic 
grasp  of  the  subject  is  realized. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  writer  does  not 
advocate  that  all  the  material  in  a  given  subject  should 
be  taught  by  the  project  method.  At  times  it  may  be 
uneconomical  to  use  the  project.  The  writer  does 
maintain  that  the  project  method  is  a  very  effective 
method  of  teaching  and  should  be  used  extensively. 

A  conscious  effort  has  been  made  in  methods  of 
teaching  to  find  a  unit  of  teaching  or  a  method  of 
teaching  which  will  help  bridge  the  gap  between  school 
tasks  and  tasks  carried  on  outside  the  school.  An 
effort  has  been  made  to  find  a  unit  which  will  combine 
the  good  features  of  home  education  with  the  good 
features  of  school  education.  The  project  as  a  unit 
of  teaching  seems  to  meet  this  need,  for  it  provides 
for  learning  in  its  natural  setting. 

The  project  aims  to  present  problems  in  situations 
not  essentially  different  from  those  of  life  outside  the 
school,  and  to  develop  the  technique  of  carrying  the 
act  to  completion. 


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INDEX 


Action,  defined,  44-45 ;  psychology 
of,  45—47  ;  technique  of,  developed 
by  project,  131-135,  136 
Agriculture,    teaching    situation    in, 
20 ;     history   of   term   project   in, 
40-42,  89 ;    definitions  of  projects 
by     men     interested     in,     69-76 ; 
simple   projects  in,  109 ;    complex 
projects  in,   110-111;    importance 
of  natural  setting  for  projects  in, 
118-119;    organization  of  courses 
in  colleges  of,  193 
Aims  in  learning,  contrasted,  3 
Allen,  C.  R.,  use  of  term  project  by, 
69-71 ;  discusses   project  in  voca- 
tional education,  81-84 ;   plan  for 
organization    of    curriculum    sug- 
gested by,  147-150 ;    explains  use 
of  project  in  education,  151-152 
Americanization,  project  in,  206—213 
Anti-fly  campaign,  215-220 
Anti-sneeze  campaign,  223—227 
Applications,  in  teaching,  22,  34,  38 
Arithmetic,    multi-problem   in,    106 ; 
simple  projects  in,    109 ;    illustra- 
tion of  project'in,  257-258 
Art,     multi-problem     in,      105-106 ; 

simple  projects  in,  109 
Artificial  setting,  vs.  natural  setting, 

4,  14-17,  19-20 
Automobile,  project  in  study  of,  266 

Bagley,  W.  C.,  quoted,  10;  habit- 
formation  discussed  by,  128-129 

Ballantine,  H.  W.,  case  method  dis- 
cussed by,  173-174 

Barberry,  project  in  study  of,  258- 
261 

Barrows,  H.  P.,  quoted,  2;  project 
defined  by,  72-73 

Benedict,  B.  W.,  shop  instruction 
described  by,  161,  162 


Betis  method,  advantages  of,  184 
Better  English  Week,  197-200 
Biology,    illustration   of   project    in, 

258-261 

Bobbitt,  Franklin,  illustration  of 
project  method  by,  61-63  ;  method 
of  building  up  curriculum  in  agri- 
culture suggested  by,  154-155 
Bungalow,  project  in  construction  of, 
268-274 

Calkins,  Charlotte,  multi-problem  in 
art  outlined  by,  105-106 

Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology, 
School  of  Life  Insurance  Sales- 
manship at,  186-190 ;  projects 
carried  out  in  departments  of,  190 

Charters,  W.  W.,  quoted,  47,  50, 
117,  120;  definition  of  project  by, 
55—56 ;  illustration  of  multi-prob- 
lem by,  103-104 ;  relation  of  proj- 
ect to  thinking  indicated  by,  127 ; 
value  of  project  in  developing 
technique  of  action  discussed  by, 
131-132 ;  organization  of  curric- 
ulum on  project  basis  discussed 
by,  156-157 

Chemistry,  manual  problem  and 
project  in,  97-98 ;  principles  of  in- 
dustrial, developed  by  projects,  143 

Civics,  taught  on  subject  basis,  148 ; 
illustrations  of  projects  in,  205-215 

Civil  War,  project  in  comparison 
with  World  War,  241-243 

Clark,  J.  R.,  multi-problem  in  arith- 
metic reported  by,  106 

Committee  of  Twelve,  183 

Complex  Projects,  102,  107-108; 
defined  and  illustrated,  109-115 

Composition,  simple  projects  in,  109 

Conduct,  vs.  information  for  its  own 
sake,  4,  9-14,  19-20,  54,  195-196 


301 


302 


INDEX 


Cooking,  project  in,  263 

Cooperative  system,  development 
and  features  of,  163-165 

Curriculum,  provision  for  life  situa- 
tions in,  123 ;  need  for  scientific 
methods  in  organization  of,  137- 
138 ;  principles  involved  in  making, 
138-139 ;  illustrations  of  reor- 
ganization on  project  basis,  139- 
152 ;  obsolete  material  in,  152- 
153  ;  project  as  basis  for  organiza- 
tion of,  153-157 

Demonstration,  teaching  by,  22,  35, 
38 

Dewey,  John,  conduct  character- 
ized by,  9,  10 ;  artificiality  of 
setting  characterized  by,  15-16 ; 
problem  defined  by,  30-31,  94; 
demonstration  defined  by,  35 ; 
activity  defined  by,  45 ;  thinking 
defined  by,  120-121 ;  project  as 
means  of  gaining  information  dis- 
cussed by,  123-124  ;  value  of  drill 
discussed  by,  128 ;  project  method 
characterized  by,  144 

Dietetics,  project  in,  262-263 

Disease,  project  in  prevention  of, 
220-223 

Doll's  house,  project  in  making,  247- 
251 

Dramatization,  project  in,  200-202 

Drawing,  taught  on  subject  basis, 
148,  149 

Drill,  teaching  by,  22,  32,  38 ;  value 
of,  in  education,  128-131 

Drushel,  project  defined  by,  79-80 

Education,  development  of,  in  home 
and  school,  194-195 

Elementary  school  instruction,  use  of 
project  in,  86-88 

Engineering,  project  idea  applied 
in,  158-168,  191-192 

English,  use  of  project  in,  84-85; 
composition,  simple  projects  in, 
109 ;  taught  as  independent  sub- 
ject, 148 ;  illustrations  of  projects 
in,  197-205 

Examples,  teaching  by,  22,  29-30, 
38 


Exercises,  teaching  by,  4,  22,  30 
Experiment,  method  of  teaching  by, 
22,  35-36,  38 

Fireless  cooker,  project  in  study  of, 
266 

Foreign  languages,  illustrations  of 
projects  in,  267-268 

French,  project  in,  268 

French,  W.  H.,  project  defined  by, 
71-72 ;  complex  projects  in  agri- 
culture suggested  by,  111 

Geography,  multi-problem  in,   103- 

104,     106-107;      illustrations    'of 

projects  in,  227-239 
Geometry,    illustrations   of   projects 

in,  256-258 

German,  project  in,  267-268 
Gouin  method,  advantages  of,   183- 

184 

Habits,  47,  48 ;  formation  of,  in  rela- 
tion to  project  method,  128-131, 
135-136 

Handschin,  Charles  H.,  direct  method 
of  teaching  modern  languages 
approved  by,  183 

Harrington,  H.  F.,  project  idea  in 
journalism  course  by,  181-183 

Heald,  F.  E.,  quoted,  36 ;  historical 
sketch  of  project  in  agriculture  by, 
41-42 ;  project  defined  by,  72-75 

Henderson,  E.  N.,  quoted,  8,  32 

Herbartian  lesson  plan,  application 
in,  33 

History,  intellectual  problem  and 
project  in,  98-99  ;  complex  project 
in,  111 ;  taught  chronologically, 
147-148;  illustrations  of  projects 
in,  239-243 

Home  Economics,  illustrations  of 
projects  in,  261-263 

Home  project,  40,  89 

Hosic,  J.  F.,  characterization  of 
project  by,  84-85 ;  use  of  term 
problem-project  by,  92 

House  Beautiful,  105 

Household  science,  teaching  situa- 
tion in,  21 

Hygiene,  projects  in,  215-227 


INDEX 


303 


Illustration,  teaching  by,  22,  34,  38 
Industrial  Education,  use  of  project 

in,  81—84 ;    outline  of  project  in, 

150 
Information,    for    its    own    sake    vs. 

conduct,  4,  9-14,  19-20,  54,  195- 

196 
Insurance  Salesmanship,  School  of,  at 

Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology, 

186 ;   organization  of  curricula  for, 

186-187;     methods    of   teaching, 

187-190 

Intellectual  Problems,  98-101,  115 
Intellectual  Projects,  98-101,  115 
Interneship,  project  idea  in,  168,  176- 

180,  194 

Kilpatrick,  W.  H.,  definitions  of 
project  by,  57-61 ;  distinction  be- 
tween problem  and  project  by, 
94-95 

Krackowizer,  Alice  M.,  discussion 
of  project  by,  86-88,  96 ;  project 
and  problem  distinguished  by,  95— 
96,  97 ;  types  of  projects  distin- 
guished by,  101-102 

Krause,  Carl  A.,  direct  method  of 
modern  language  teaching  advo- 
cated by,  185 

Lane,  C.  H.,  project  defined  by,  72- 
73 

Law,  project  idea  in,  168-175,  189, 
191,  193-194 

Legal  Aid  Society,  172 

Legal  clinics,  project  idea  incor- 
porated in,  168-174 ;  arguments 
for  and  against,  175 ;  limitations 
of  project  method  in,  180 ;  intro- 
duction of,  194 

Letter  writing,  project  in,  202-204 

Life  Topic,  64,  65,  66,  145-147 

Lull,  H.  G.,  distinction  between 
problem  and  project  by,  93 

MacHoke,  quoted,  118 
McMurry,  F.  M.,  quoted,  10 
Mann,  C.  R.,  characterization  of  the 
project  by,  76,  80;  value  of  proj- 
ect in  engineering   discussed   by, 


135 ;     teaching    of    chemistry    by 
projects  discussed  by,  143 ;   neces- 
sity of  complete  conception  of  the 
subject  emphasized  by,  155  ;  teach- 
ing engineering  by  project  method 
described  by,  158-161,  162 
Mann,  Horace,  quoted,  6,  7 
Manual  Problem,  97-101,  115 
Manual  Project,  97-101,  115 
Manual     Training,     illustrations    of 

projects  in,  243-251 
Map  study,  project  in,  227-229 
Mathematics,   textbook  and  project 
basis    in    teaching    of,     148-152 ; 
illustrations  of  projects  in,  252—258 
Medical   clinics,   project  idea  incor- 
porated in,  175-180,  194 
Medicine,   project  idea    in    teaching 

of,  175-180,  189,  191,  194 
Meister,  Morris,  quoted,  78-79 
Memory  of  information   vs.   reason- 
ing, 4-9,  19-20,  53-54,  195,  196 
Modern     languages,      project     idea 
incorporated  in  teaching  of,    183, 
191 ;    illustrations  of  projects  in, 
267-268 

Moore,  E.  C.,  11,  12-13 
Moore,  J.  C.,  126-127 
Morgan,  E.  M.,  legal  education  dis- 
cussed by,  168,  169,  170 
Multi-problems,     situations     classed 
as,   80,   92;    explained,    102,115; 
illustrations  of,  in  geography,  103- 
104,    106-107;    in   art,    105,    106; 
in  arithmetic,  106 

Natural  setting,  vs.  artificial  setting. 
4,  14-17,  19-20,  49-54;  as  dis- 
tinct contribution  of  the  project 
method,  90 ;  makes  provision  for 
strong  motive,  116-117;  disre- 
garded in  education,  194,  196 ; 
determination  necessary  for  proj- 
ect, 196 

Ohio  State  University,  approach  to 
project  method  in  engineering 
courses  of,  165 

Originals,  use  of,  in  teaching,  22,  30, 
38 

Owen,  W.  B.,  quoted,  45-46 


304 


INDEX 


Parcel  post  project,  111-114 
Parker,  Francis  W.,  quoted,  153 
Pasteur,   project  method  illustrated 

by  work  of,  126 
Pastoral  people,  project  in  study  of, 

275-277 

Physics,  complex  project  in,  114; 
illustrations  of  projects  in,  257- 
258,  263-267 

Pillsbury,  W.  B.,  quoted,  46-47 
Poems,  project  in  collecting,  204-205 
Practicum,     use     of     term,     2 ;      as 
method  of  teaching,  4,  22,  38,  49 ; 
definitions  of,  36-37 
Principles,  priority  of,  vs.  priority  of 
problem,  4,  17-19,  20,  48-49,  54, 
196 

Problem,  as  method  of  teaching,  4, 
22,  29,  38;  defined,  30-31,  94; 
distinguished  from  project,  94-97 ; 
types  of :  intellectual  and  manual, 
97-101,  115;  classifications  of: 
simple  and  multi-problems,  102- 
107,  115 

Problem,  priority  of,  vs.  priority  of 
principles,  4,  17-19,  20,  48-49, 
54,  196 ;  essential  element  of  proj- 
ect, 47-48 

Problem-project  method,  92 
Project,  variety  of  opinion  concern- 
ing, 1-2  ;  characteristics  of,  3—4  ; 
history  of  term,  40-42 ;  author's 
definition  of,  43,  89,  94,  114; 
justification  for  use  of  term,  43- 
54  ;  criticism  of  current  definitions, 
54—55 ;  proposed  definitions  by 
educators,  55-90 ;  distinguished 
from  problem,  94-97 ;  types  of : 
intellectual  and  manual,  97-101, 
1 15 ;  classifications  of :  simple  and 
complex,  102,  107-115;  as  source 
of  interest,  116-119;  psychology 
of,  1 19 ;  relation  of,  to  thinking, 
120-127,  135-136;  acquiring  of 
habits  and  skills  stimulated  by, 
128-130,  135-136;  value  of  in 
developing  technique  of  action, 
131-136 ;  as  basis  for  organization 
of  the  curriculum,  138-139,  153- 
157 ;  illustrations  of  reorganized 
curricula  based  on,  139-152 ;  in 


engineering,  158-168 ;  in  legal 
and  medical  clinics,  168-180;  in 
journalism  courses,  181-183 ;  in 
direct  method  of  teaching  modern 
language,  183-186 ;  in  teaching 
insurance  salesmanship,  186-190 ; 
in  teaching  dramatic  arts,  190; 
aim  of,  191 ;  method  of  teaching 
applied  to  subjects  in  the  elemen- 
tary and  high  schools,  192-278 
Prosser,  use  of  term  project  by,  41, 
69-71 

Questions,  used  in  teaching,  22,  23- 
28,  37-38 ;  detailed,  25  ;  memory, 
25;  topical,  25;  thought,  27 

Randall,  J.  A.,  school  project  defined 

by,  80 

Reading,  project  in,  200-202 
Reasoning      vs.     memorizing,     4-9, 

19-20,  53-54,  195,  196 
Reflexes,  47-48 
Rensselaer     Polytechnic      Institute, 

project  idea  in  engineering  courses 

at,  158-159,  178 
Reviews,  used  in  teaching,  22,  33,  38 

Schneider,  Professor,  cooperative  sys- 
tem of  education  organized  by, 
163-165 

Science,  projects  defined  by  men 
interested  in,  76-80 ;  proposed 
reorganization  in  teaching  of,  143- 
144 

Sheffield  Scientific  School,  159 

Sherman,  C.  E.,  report  of  engineer- 
ing work  by,  165-166,  167 

Simple  Problems,  102-103,  115 

Simple  Projects,  102,  107-108,  115; 
illustrations  of,  108-109 

Skills,  in  relation  to  project  method, 
130-131,  136 

Smith,  D.  E.,  quoted,  29 

Smith-Hughes  Act,  1,  42 

Smith-Lever  Act,  41 

Snedden,  David,  use  of  term  project 
by,  41,  66-69 

Socialized  recitation,  195 

Stimson,  R.  W.,  quoted,  20-21,  119; 
use  of  term  project  by,  40-41,  69- 
71 ;  complex  projects  in  agriculture 


INDEX 


305 


outlined    by,    110-111;     necessity 

for    drill    in    agricultural    projects 

recognized    by,     129 ;     Vocational 

Education  by  Home  Projects  by, 

197 
Stone,    C.   W.,    project   defined   by, 

64-66 ;    complex   project  outlined 

by,    111-114;     project    organized 

by,  144-147 
Subject  matter,  abstract  in  schools, 

194  ;  effort  to  make  concrete,  195  ; 

projects     cutting     across     several 

fields  of,  268-277 
Subjects,    method    of    teaching    by, 

147,  149 ;    major  and  minor,  147, 

149,  150,  151 
Sugar,  project  in  study  of  production 

in  U.  S.,  233-239 
Suzzallo,  Henry,  quoted,  29-30,  33, 

34,  35 

Teaching,  types  of,  analyzed,  22-39 
Tests,  used  in  teaching,  22,  32,  38 ; 

standardized,  137 

Thinking,  defined,  120-121 ;  in  rela- 
tion to  the  project,  120-127,  135- 
136 

Titchener,  E.  B.,  quoted,  44 
Topics,  teaching  by,  22,  28-29,  38 
Transportation,  project  in  study  of, 
229-233 


Twiss,  G.  R.,  quoted,  17,  18,  1441 
necessity  for  organization  of  in- 
formation discussed  by,  156 

Types  of  teaching  analyzed,  22-39 

University  of  Cincinnati,  coopera- 
tive system  of  education  at,  163, 
164 

University  of  Illinois,  illustration 
of  project  method  in  engineering 
courses  at,  161—163  ;  in  journalism 
courses  of,  181-183 ;  projects  de- 
veloped by  students  at,  197 

University  of  Minnesota,  experiments 
in  legal  education  at,  171 

Ventilation,  project  in,  263-266 

White,  E.  E.,  quoted,  32 
Wigmore,  John  H.,  quoted,  172 
Woodhull,  John  F.,  views  on  project 

method,  76-77,  79,  80,  91-92 
Woodworking,  curriculum    in,  based 

on  projects,  139-142 
Wool,  project  in  study  of,  275-277 
Worcester      Polytechnic      Institute, 

method     of     handling     the     shop 

problem  at,  160,  161 
World  War,  projects  concerning,  204- 

205,  239-243 


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